The following are terms we use to describe arguments. The first three terms—argument, premises, and conclusion—are crucial to our understanding of the formal concept of an argument.
Statement/proposition: a declarative sentence that must either be true or false. ("Vienna is the capital of Austria.")
Compound statement: a statement which does contain another statement as a component part. ("Istanbul was the capital of Turkey until the end of the Ottoman Empire.")
Argument: a sequence of two or more statements of which one is designated as the conclusion and all the others of which are premises. ("Socrates is a human being. All human beings are mortal. Socra tes is mortal.")
Premises: the statements which are affirmed as providing grounds for accepting the conclusion.
Conclusion: that statement which is affirmed on the basis of the other propositions (the premises) of the argument.
Truth value: the truth value of a true statement is true and that of a false statement is false.
Ex. We will use the simple argument given in the first section as an example:
1. All people should be treated justly. (This is the first premise of the argument; premises are denoted with a (P))
2. Ugly people are people. (This is the second premise) (P)
3. Therefore, ugly people should be treated justly. (This is the conclusion; it follows from premises 1 and 2)
critical thinking: Applying systematic logic and doubt to any claim or belief; thinking carefully and rigorously.
delusion: A fixed, false belief that is vigorously held even in the face of overwhelming contradictory evidence.
heuristic: A cognitive rule of thumb or mental shortcut that we subconsciously make that may be true much of the time but is not logically valid.
Examples for a Heuristic: (from George Pólya's 1945 book, How to Solve It:)
If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.
If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that ("working backward").
If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.
Try solving a more general problem first (the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious plan may have more chances of success).
Make an educated guess!
logic: A formal process or principle of reasoning.
meta-cognition: Thinking about thinking; examining the processes by which we think about and arrive at our own beliefs.
methodological naturalism: The philosophical assumptions that underlie scientific methodology; specifically, the assumption that all effects have natural causes.
pseudoscience: A practice that superficially resembles the process of science but distorts proper methodology to the point that it is fatally flawed and does not qualify as true science.
scientific skepticism: A comprehensive approach to knowledge that emphasizes critical thinking and science. Skepticism combines knowledge of philosophy of science, scientific methods, mechanisms of self-deception, and related fields to approach all claims to truth in a provisional and systematic way.
validity: An argument is valid if the logic is proper and not fallacious.
cognitive dissonance: An unpleasant emotion generated by the simultaneous existence of mutually exclusive beliefs.
confirmation bias: A cognitive bias to support beliefs we already hold, including the tendency to notice and accept confirming information while ignoring or rationalizing dis-confirming information.
default mode: A common behavior that results from evolved emotions and subconscious processes without meta-cognitive insight.
fundamental attribution error: A psychological term that refers to the tendency to ascribe the actions of others to internal motives and attributes rather than external situational factors.
hierarchy of needs: The term coined by Abraham Maslow that describes the relationship among the basic and higher human needs—from physiological needs like food to emotional needs like self-actualization.
neocortex: The neocortex is the most recently evolved portion of the human brain—specifically, the frontal lobes, which provide executive function, among other things.
subconscious: Brain processing that occurs without conscious awareness.
Rationality is a term which can have different meanings to different people. Here are a few propositions about rationality:
Rationality is thinking in ways which systematically arrive at truth.
Rationality is thinking in ways which cause you to systematically achieve your goals.
Rationality is trying to do better on purpose.
Rationality is reasoning well even in the face of massive uncertainty.
Rationality is making good decisions even when it’s hard.
Rationality is being self-aware, understanding how your own mind works, and applying this knowledge to thinking better.