The basic ideas are products of human reason , but they always struggle with other strands of human nature : loyalty to tribe , deference to authority , magical thinking , the blaming of misfortune on evildoers . The era was a cornucopia of ideas , some of them contradictory , but four themes tie them together: reason, science , humanism , and progress .
Reason: If there’s anything the Enlightenment thinkers had in common , it was an insistence that we energetically apply the standard of reason to understanding our world , and not fall back on generators of delusion like faith, dogma, revelation, authority, charisma, mysticism, divination, visions, gut feelings, or the hermeneutic parsing of sacred texts .
Science: That leads to the second ideal , science , the refining of reason to understand the world . The Scientific Revolution was revolutionary in a way that is hard to appreciate today , now that its discoveries have become second nature to most of us . To the Enlightenment thinkers the escape from ignorance and superstition showed how mistaken our conventional wisdom could be , and how the methods of science — skepticism , fallibilism , open debate , and empirical testing — are a paradigm of how to achieve reliable knowledge .
Humanism: The idea of a universal human nature brings us to a third theme , humanism . The thinkers of the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment saw an urgent need for a secular foundation for morality , because they were haunted by a historical memory of centuries of religious carnage : the Crusades , the Inquisition , witch hunts , the European wars of religion . They laid that foundation in what we now call humanism , which privileges the well - being of individual men , women , and children over the glory of the tribe , race , nation , or religion .
Progress: If the abolition of slavery and cruel punishment is not progress , nothing is , which brings us to the fourth Enlightenment ideal . With our understanding of the world advanced by science and our circle of sympathy expanded through reason and cosmopolitanism , humanity could make intellectual and moral progress .
These four ideas need to be anchored in society, and this is done through social and political structure and institutions:
Institutions: Rather than trying to shape human nature , the Enlightenment hope for progress was concentrated on human institutions . Human - made systems like governments , laws , schools , markets , and international bodies are a natural target for the application of reason to human betterment .
Social Constructions: In this way of thinking , government is not a divine fiat to reign , a synonym for “ society , ” or an avatar of the national , religious , or racial soul . It is a human invention , tacitly agreed to in a social contract , designed to enhance the welfare of citizens by coordinating their behavior and discouraging selfish acts that may be tempting to every individual but leave everyone worse off .
Peace: This brings us to another Enlightenment ideal , peace . War was so common in history that it was natural to see it as a permanent part of the human condition and to think peace could come only in a messianic age .
Earliest traces of archaic Homo Sapiens: 300.000 BC (early Neandertals), Homo Sapiens specifically starts around 160.000 BC.
50,000+ years ago: Neanderthals practice deliberate burial of their dead
Stone age: Stone tools starting around 100.000 years ago.
Earliest cave paintings: 40.000 BC.
Domestication of animals around 15.000 BC, horses 3500BC
12,000–15,000 years ago: First humans arrive in the Americas
Agriculture and Plough ca. 10.000 to 8000 BC
Copper starts about 8000 BC
Wheel ca. 4000 BC
Earliest writing systems: Mesopotamia, 3000 BC.
Bronze Age: starts around 3500 BC, to 1100 BC
Great Pyramid of Gizeh, 2560 BC.
Iron Age: Ca. 1200 BC, ends with the beginning of the Classical Greek period in 500 BC
Mid-13th Century: Invention of Gunpowder
1453 Gutenberg invents the Printing Press.
1769 Steam engine, around 1769. This drives the industrial revolution.
1876: Alexander Bell makes first telephone call.
1903: First airplane flight, Wright brothers.
1969 First man lands on the moon.
1977: The first personal computers come on the market.
1991, CERN publicizes the new World Wide Web project.
2003: Decoding of the human genome complete.
2015: Artificial Intelligence becomes mainstream.
2020: Quantum Computers become commercially available. Robots are exploring Mars.
2021: Nuclear fusion works, and for the first time produces more energy than is used to start it up.
2023: Artificial Intelligence matures to become a major new tool in Computing: ChatGPT 4 is released.
1. Astronomy and Physics
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630):
Discoveries: Laws of planetary motion.
Impact: Provided a mathematical explanation for the heliocentric model.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642):
Discoveries: Observations of Jupiter's moons, sunspots, and more.
Works: "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" (1632).
Impact: His telescopic observations supported the Copernican model.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727):
Discoveries: Laws of motion, universal gravitation.
Works: "Principia Mathematica" (1687).
Impact: Unified physics and astronomy, laying the foundation for classical mechanics.
2. Chemistry and Medicine
Robert Boyle (1627-1691):
Discoveries: Boyle's law, describing the behavior of gases.
Impact: Pioneered modern experimental scientific method in chemistry.
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794):
Discoveries: Law of conservation of mass, identified oxygen.
Works: "Elementary Treatise of Chemistry" (1789).
Impact: Known as the "Father of Modern Chemistry."
Edward Jenner (1749-1823):
Discoveries: Smallpox vaccine.
Impact: Laid the groundwork for immunology.
3. Technology and Engineering
James Watt (1736-1819):
Discoveries: Improvement of the steam engine.
Impact: Powered the Industrial Revolution.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790):
Discoveries: Experiments with electricity, lightning rod invention.
Impact: Advanced understanding of electrical phenomena.
Conclusion: A Period of Discoveries
The Enlightenment's scientific and technological discoveries were not isolated notes but part of a grand symphony of human progress. They were interwoven with the philosophical ideas of the time, each reinforcing the other.
The scientific revolution of the Enlightenment was a movement between observation and theory, between the tangible and the abstract. It was a time when the mysteries of the cosmos began to unravel, and the building blocks of life began to appear for us.
These discoveries were not merely intellectual exercises; they had profound practical implications. They fueled technological innovations that transformed daily life and laid the groundwork for modern science.
In the grand picture of human history, the Enlightenment stands as a luminous thread, a period when the light of reason illuminated a path towards knowledge, freedom, and human potential. It was a time when the mind's eye began to glimpse with wonder and curiosity the universe's intricate beauty, forever changing our relationship with the natural world.
We have the capacity to think about ourselves; this allows us to understand the perspective of others. Our brains (frontal lobes) are highly developed, they grow until we reach early adulthood.
Two Brain sides: left and right.
The average adult human brain has about 100 billion cells. (1011 )
Linked by synapses, each brain cell can connect to tens of thousands of other brain cells. 1014
“The human brain has a huge number of synapses. Each of the 1011 (one hundred billion) neurons has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons.
It has been estimated that the brain of a three-year-old child has about 10¹⁵ synapses (1 quadrillion).
Humans make tools; they develop technology as an extension of their human agency.
Tools determine history because they create possibilities (and weapons).
Stone Age, Bronze Age, Copper, Iron Age.
“Means of Production”.
Fire; Wheel, Agriculture. Irrigation.
Domestication of animals.
Cities, Tribes. Cultures. Nation States.
Symbolic Systems: Languages, Math, Sciences.
Virtual Spaces: The Internet.
Collapse of time and distance in the last century.
1. The Dawn of Reason (Late 17th Century)
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, began in the late 17th century, primarily in Europe. It was a movement that sought to emphasize reason, science, and skepticism of traditional authority.
Key Event: The publication of Isaac Newton's "Principia Mathematica" (1687) laid the groundwork for scientific inquiry.
2. The Philosophes and Their Ideas
Voltaire (1694-1778):
Philosophy: Advocated for freedom of speech and religion.
Works: "Candide" (1759).
Impact: His writings inspired many to challenge the status quo.
John Locke (1632-1704):
Philosophy: Believed in natural rights and the social contract.
Works: "Two Treatises of Government" (1689).
Impact: His ideas influenced the American and French Revolutions.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804):
Philosophy: Introduced the idea of transcendental idealism.
Works: "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781).
Impact: His work laid the foundation for modern philosophy.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778):
Philosophy: Emphasized the importance of the general will.
Works: "The Social Contract" (1762).
Impact: Influenced political reform and educational theory.
3. The Spread of Ideas (18th Century)
Enlightenment ideas spread through salons, coffeehouses, and printed materials. Women like Madame Geoffrin played a crucial role in hosting intellectual gatherings.
Key Event: The publication of the "Encyclopédie" (1751-1772), edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, disseminated Enlightenment ideas.
4. Political Impact and Revolution
The Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and individual rights led to significant political changes.
American Revolution (1775-1783): Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, the colonies sought independence from Britain.
French Revolution (1789-1799): The demand for equality and fraternity led to a radical transformation of French society.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Thought
The Enlightenment was not merely a historical period; it was a profound transformation in the way humans understood themselves and the world. It gave birth to modern democracy, science, and philosophy. The echoes of this intellectual revolution continue to resonate, shaping our contemporary world in ways both subtle and profound.
The Enlightenment's legacy is a testament to the power of ideas. It reminds us that through reason, dialogue, and a relentless pursuit of truth, we can transcend the limitations of our time and place, reaching towards a more enlightened existence.