Unit 5 - AC/DC Electronics Fundamentals (♊ - Dual Enrolment)

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Caution & Safety  Considerations:

Primer:  "Aaron, I can imagine no way in which this thing could be considered anywhere remotely close to safe. All I know is I spent six hours in there and I'm still alive... You still want to do it?"

• As with any activity, please make sure you are using appropriate safety equipment.   If you are coding, writing, reading, or working a lab, make sure you stand up and stretch every hour or so,  Please consider any safety issues connecting to a Raspberry Pi, Arduino, computers and other electronic equipment.

Essential Questions:

• How does electricity flow through a circuit, and what causes electrical devices to work?

• How can engineers use voltage, current, resistance, and power to predict and troubleshoot circuit behavior?

• How do electrical systems enable robots and rovers to sense, think, and move in the real world?

Fundamental Science → Engineering Analysis → Real-World Rover & Robotic Applications

Key Academic Vocabulary or Concepts:

• Voltage (V) - The electrical pressure that pushes electrons through a circuit, measured in Volts (V).

  • Rover Connection: The battery provides voltage (9 V or 12 V) to drive motors; the Arduino logic runs at 5 V; Raspberry Pi GPIO pins operate at 3.3 V. Voltage is always measured between two points — never at just one.

• Current (I) - The flow rate of electrons through a conductor, measured in Amperes (A) or milliamperes (mA).

  • Rover Connection: Every component on your rover draws current — a DC gear motor may draw 200 mA free-running and 1.5 A at stall. Current is measured in series with the load.

• Resistance (Ω) - The opposition to current flow in a circuit, measured in Ohms (Ω).

  • Rover Connection: Resistors protect LEDs and GPIO pins. Motor windings, sensor cables, and even breadboard traces have resistance. Higher resistance means less current flows for the same voltage.

• Ohm's Law (V = IR) - The fundamental relationship between voltage, current, and resistance: Voltage = Current × Resistance.

  • Rover Connection: Before wiring any rover circuit, use Ohm's Law to calculate current draw and select the correct resistor value. It exists in three forms: V = IR, I = V/R, R = V/I.

• Power (P = IV) - The rate at which electrical energy is consumed or delivered, measured in Watts (W). Calculated as Power = Current × Voltage.

  • Rover Connection: A motor drawing 1.5 A from a 12 V supply consumes 18 W. Power tells you how fast a battery drains and how much heat a component generates. Two derived forms: P = I²R and P = V²/R.

• Series Circuit - A circuit where components are connected end-to-end in a single path, so the same current flows through all of them. Voltage divides across components; current is common.

  • Rover Connection: A current-limiting resistor wired in series with an LED — the resistor and LED share the same current path. Remove any component and the whole path breaks.

• Parallel Circuit - A circuit where components are connected across the same two nodes, sharing the same voltage. Current divides among branches; voltage is common.

  • Rover Connection: All sensors on the rover's 5 V rail are wired in parallel — each gets the full 5 V supply, and unplugging one sensor does not affect the others.

• Ground (GND) - The common 0 V reference point in a circuit. All voltage measurements are made relative to ground.

  • Rover Connection: The Arduino ground, L298N ground, motor supply negative, and battery negative must ALL connect to a single common ground. A missing ground connection is the #1 cause of rover wiring failures.

• Direct Current (DC) - Electrical current that flows in one constant direction. Voltage is steady (or slowly varying), not alternating.

  • Rover Connection: Batteries, Arduino power pins, motor supply rails, and all logic signals are DC. DC is the native language of every rover electrical system.

• Alternating Current (AC) - Electrical current that periodically reverses direction. Described by frequency (Hz), period (s), and amplitude (V).

  • Rover Connection: Wall outlet power is AC (60 Hz in the US). In robotics, AC thinking applies to PWM signals, servo control pulses, I2C clock lines, and ultrasonic echo pulses — all repeating waveforms.

• PWM:  Pulse Width Modulation - A technique of rapidly switching a digital signal ON and OFF to simulate a variable average voltage. Characterized by duty cycle — the percentage of time the signal is HIGH.

  • Rover Connection: The Arduino's analogWrite() function generates PWM to control motor speed through the L298N ENA pin. A 50% duty cycle on a 12 V supply delivers an average of 6 V to the motor.

• Voltage Divider - Two resistors in series where the output voltage is tapped between them, producing a fraction of the input voltage: Vout = Vin × (R2 / (R1 + R2)).

  • Rover Connection: Photoresistors and thermistors form voltage dividers with a fixed resistor to produce an analog voltage readable by the Arduino ADC. Also used to step 5 V logic down to 3.3 V to protect Raspberry Pi GPIO pins.

• Back-EMF (Counter-EMF) - The voltage generated by a spinning motor that opposes the supply voltage. When a motor is switched off, stored magnetic energy releases as a voltage spike in the reverse direction.

  • Rover Connection: Back-EMF voltage spikes can destroy an H-bridge driver. A flyback diode (1N4007) wired in reverse across each motor terminal clamps the spike, protecting the L298N from damage.

• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) - The sum of all voltage drops around any closed loop in a circuit equals zero. Equivalently: the supply voltage equals the sum of all voltage drops across components in the loop.

  • Rover Connection: Used to account for every volt from the battery through the fuse, wiring resistance, L298N, and motor — and verify none is unaccounted for. If the numbers don't add up, there's a wiring fault.

• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) - The sum of all currents entering a node (junction) equals the sum of all currents leaving it. Current is conserved - it cannot accumulate at a node.

  • Rover Connection: Used to calculate total rover current draw at the battery terminal by summing all branch currents: left motor + right motor + MCU + sensors + servo + LEDs = total battery current. This drives fuse sizing and battery selection.

Unit Topics and Lessons

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Standards Alignments & Objectives:

I have verified these, but, Yes, I used AI to generate this list based on the unit material, and a capstone project of building an Autonomous Rover using a Raspberry Pi or Jetson Nano: NGSS, California CTE Standards, Related Instructional Objectives (SWBAT), CCSS, RSIT, RLST, WS, WHSST, A-CED, ETS: 

NGSS — Next Generation Science Standards

HS-PS3-1 — Energy Computational Models

"Create a computational model to calculate the change in the energy of one component in a system when the energy of the other component changes."

Unit connection: Students use the Power Equation (P = IV, P = I²R, P = V²/R) to calculate energy transfer in rover circuits — motor power, resistor dissipation, and battery energy budget. With the RPi capstone, students extend this to a Python script that models battery runtime as a function of mission duty cycle (proportion of time motors are active vs idle), producing a quantitative mission-endurance estimate before field testing.

Unit Application: Power equation calculations, rover battery budget design, Python-based mission energy modeling

HS-PS3-3 — Energy Conversion Device

"Design, build, and refine a device that works within given constraints to convert one form of energy into another form of energy."

Unit connection: Students design the rover within hard constraints (L298N 2 A continuous limit, Pi GPIO 3.3 V logic, battery voltage sag threshold). They build the physical system and refine it through iterative field testing — adjusting PWM parameters, sensor thresholds, and control logic based on measured performance. The full HAL → drivers → control → entry point architecture supports structured refinement without rebuilding hardware.

Unit Application: DC motor and H-bridge wiring, PWM speed control, full rover system integration, autonomous capstone build

HS-ETS1-1 — Criteria and Constraints Specification

"Analyze a major global challenge to specify qualitative and quantitative criteria and constraints for solutions that account for societal needs and wants."

Unit Application: Battery selection constraints, motor driver current and thermal limits, system electrical audit, Capstone Design Requirements Document

HS-ETS1-2 — Engineering Problem Decomposition

"Design a solution to a complex real-world problem by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable problems that can be solved through engineering."

Unit connection: The layered Python rover architecture (HAL → drivers → control → utils → entry point) is a direct physical instantiation of engineering decomposition. Each layer solves one bounded problem: HAL abstracts GPIO pin assignments, the motor driver layer abstracts L298N protocol, the control layer implements behavior (line-following, obstacle avoidance), and the entry point orchestrates the mission. Students document each layer's responsibility before coding it.

Unit Application: KVL/KCL analysis, full electrical system integration, Python layered rover software architecture (HAL → drivers → control → entry point)

HS-ETS1-3 — Evaluate and Refine Solutions

"Evaluate a solution to a complex real-world problem based on prioritized criteria and trade-offs that account for a range of constraints, including cost, safety, reliability, and aesthetics as well as possible social, cultural, and environmental impacts."

Unit Application: Motor driver thermal evaluation, fault injection and diagnosis, capstone field testing and iterative redesign

HS-ETS1-4 — Computer Simulation and Modeling

"Use a computer simulation to model the impact of proposed solutions to a complex real-world problem with numerous criteria and constraints on interactions within and between systems relevant to the problem."

Unit Application: PWM duty cycle modeling, rover power consumption modeling, Python-based simulation of autonomous control logic before hardware deployment

California CTE Standards — Engineering & Architecture Sector, Engineering Technology Pathway

All standards below are sourced verbatim or by verified snippet from the California CTE Model Curriculum Standards — Engineering and Architecture (CDE PDF).

B3.3 — AC and DC Circuit Analysis

"Calculate, construct, measure, and interpret both AC and DC circuits."

Unit connection: This remains the primary curricular anchor of the entire unit. Students calculate (Ohm's Law, KVL, KCL, voltage divider, power equation), construct (breadboard and rover wiring), measure (multimeter, oscilloscope), and interpret (lab reports, fault diagnosis) AC and DC circuits across all 10 modules. With the RPi capstone, B3.3 extends to the Pi's 3.3 V logic rails, I2C bus signals (verified on oscilloscope), and the voltage divider level-shifter required to safely interface 5 V sensor outputs to 3.3 V Pi GPIO pins.

Unit Application: All AC/DC circuit topics throughout the unit — voltage, current, resistance, Ohm's Law, series/parallel circuits, power equation, voltage dividers, motor circuits, PWM signals, KVL/KCL; extended to Raspberry Pi 3.3 V logic rails, I2C bus signals, and voltage divider level shifting for the capstone

B3.4 — Electrical Control and Protection Devices

"Understand how electrical control and protection devices are used in electrical systems."

Unit connection: Students study and apply: current-limiting resistors, flyback diodes (1N4007 across motor terminals), fuses (rover power budget), pull-up/pull-down resistors (GPIO input protection), decoupling capacitors (motor switching noise), and voltage dividers (3.3 V level shifting for Pi GPIO). With the RPi capstone, the level-shifting voltage divider for the HC-SR04 echo line becomes a required protection circuit, not an optional lab.

Unit Application: Current-limiting resistors, pull-up/pull-down resistors, flyback diodes, decoupling capacitors, fusing strategy, voltage divider level shifting — all applied as required protection circuits in the rover and Raspberry Pi capstone

B3.5 — Load and Current Calculations

"Calculate loads, currents, and voltages of electrical circuits using Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Laws."

Unit connection: Students apply Ohm's Law to calculate LED current, motor stall current, sensor branch draw, and GPIO pin loading. KCL at the battery node sums all branch currents. KVL accounts for every voltage drop in the motor power loop. With the Pi capstone, students add the RPi's power draw (typically 600 mA–1.2 A depending on CPU load and peripherals) to the power budget and verify that the 5 V regulator (or USB-C supply) can sustain it under simultaneous motor switching transients.

Unit Application: Ohm's Law current calculations, rover power budget, KCL branch current summation, full electrical audit — extended to include Raspberry Pi power draw under software load and 5 V regulator selection for the capstone

B6.7 — Prototype Evaluation and Redesign

"Evaluate and redesign a prototype on the basis of collected test data."

Unit Application: Fault injection and diagnosis, capstone field testing, data-driven prototype redesign and retest

B8.0 — Control System Design

"Understand fundamental control system design and develop systems that complete a task."

Unit Application: KCL/KVL in power distribution, full system integration, autonomous rover as a complete input-processing-output control system

B8.4 — Program a Computing Device to Control a System

"Program a computing device to control systems or process."

Unit Application: PWM motor speed control, Raspberry Pi GPIO PWM output, complete layered Python rover firmware (HAL → drivers → control → entry point)

B8.5 — Motors and Solenoids as Output Mechanisms

"Use motors, solenoids, and similar devices as output mechanisms in controlled systems."

Unit Application: L298N H-bridge direction and speed control, servo PWM signals, DC motors and servo as software-controlled outputs of the Raspberry Pi control loop

B8.6 — Assemble Input, Processing, and Output Devices

"Assemble input, processing, and output devices to create controlled systems capable of performing a task."

Unit Application: Full electrical and software system integration, autonomous rover mission demonstration

B10.0 — Culminating Engineering Technology Project

"Design and construct a culminating project effectively using engineering technology."

Unit Application: Rover electrical system audit, final presentation, full capstone design-build-test-present cycle

Anchor Standard 4.0 — Technology

"Use existing and emerging technology to investigate, research, and produce products and services, including new information, as required in the Engineering and Architecture sector workplace environment."

Unit Application: All capstone activities — Raspberry Pi rover design, Python firmware development, field testing, and documentation

Anchor Standard 11.0 — Demonstration and Application

"Demonstrate and apply the knowledge and skills contained in the Engineering and Architecture anchor standards, pathway standards, and performance indicators in classroom, laboratory and workplace settings."

"11.5 Create a portfolio, or similar collection of work, that offers evidence through assessment and evaluation of skills and knowledge competency."

Unit Application: Final presentation, capstone documentation package (schematic, power budget, software architecture diagram, design log, Git repository) as portfolio evidence

Related Instructional Objectives — SWBAT

SWBAT-1 — Apply Ohm's Law in All Three Forms

Students will be able to rearrange and apply V = IR, I = V/R, and R = V/I to calculate unknown quantities in rover circuits, and verify calculated values using a multimeter.

Assessment: Lab 2.1 (LED current-limiting resistor), Module 2 quiz

SWBAT-2 — Measure and Interpret Electrical Signals in a Rover System

Students will be able to use a digital multimeter (voltage, current, resistance modes) and an oscilloscope to measure DC voltages, branch currents, PWM waveforms, and I2C clock signals in an operating Raspberry Pi rover system — and correctly interpret each measurement in the context of the rover's operating state.

Assessment: Lab 1.1, Lab 7.1, Lab 7.3 (I2C on oscilloscope), Capstone signal audit

SWBAT-3 — Design, Calculate, and Defend a Complete Rover Power Budget

Students will be able to research or measure current draw for each rover subsystem (including Raspberry Pi idle and peak loads), sum branch currents using KCL, calculate battery runtime for a specified mission profile, and select a battery, fuse, and 5 V regulator — justifying each choice in writing and verifying it with measured data from the operating rover.

Assessment: Lab 4.2 (Power Budget Spreadsheet), Module 10 Electrical Audit, Capstone DRD

SWBAT-4 — Implement a Layered Python Control System on Raspberry Pi

Students will be able to write, structure, and deploy a layered Python rover control program on a Raspberry Pi using gpiozero with pigpio backend and BOARD pin numbering — implementing at minimum: a motor HAL, a sensor driver layer, and a behavior control layer — and demonstrate autonomous rover navigation on a defined course.

Assessment: Capstone Python firmware submission (Git repository), autonomous mission demonstration, software architecture diagram in Final Presentation

CCSS — Common Core State Standards

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA-CED.A.1 — Create and Solve One-Variable Equations

"Create equations and inequalities in one variable and use them to solve problems."

Unit connection: Ohm's Law (V = IR, I = V/R, R = V/I) and the Power Equation (P = IV) applied to rover circuits. Students isolate the unknown and solve — applied in authentic engineering context in every module.

Unit Application: Ohm's Law, series/parallel circuit analysis, power equation, voltage dividers, KVL/KCL

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA-CED.A.4 — Rearrange Formulas

"Rearrange formulas to highlight a quantity of interest, using the same reasoning as in solving equations."

Unit connection: Students rearrange V = IR, P = IV, and Vout = Vin × R2/(R1+R2) as needed to solve for any unknown. Formula rearrangement is the daily tool for deciding which component to select before every breadboard build and every RPi GPIO circuit.

Unit Application: Ohm's Law rearrangement, power equation rearrangement, voltage divider formula rearrangement, KVL loop equations

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSN-Q.A.1 — Use Units to Understand and Solve Problems

"Use units as a way to understand problems and to guide the solution of multi-step problems; choose and interpret units consistently in formulas."

Unit connection: Disciplined unit tracking across Volts, Amperes, Ohms, Watts, Watt-hours, milliampere-hours, milliseconds, kilohertz, meters per second (ultrasonic). Units on every value in every lab data table is a course non-negotiable.

Unit Application: All lab data tables and calculations throughout the unit; capstone power budget (Volts, Amperes, Ohms, Watts, Watt-hours, milliampere-hours, milliseconds, kilohertz)

CCSS RSIT — Reading Standards for Informational Text (Grades 11–12)

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.7 — Integrate Multiple Information Sources

"Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in different media or formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words)."

Unit connection: Students read L298N and HC-SR04 datasheets (PDF tables), oscilloscope screenshots, schematic symbols, written specifications, and Raspberry Pi GPIO pinout diagrams — synthesizing across all formats to make wiring and component-selection decisions.

Unit Application: L298N datasheet interpretation, oscilloscope waveform analysis, schematic reading and creation, Raspberry Pi GPIO pinout, gpiozero/pigpio API documentation

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.9 — Analyze and Synthesize Multiple Texts

"Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event."

Unit connection: For the Module 10 schematic and power budget, students synthesize datasheet specs, measured lab values, calculated predictions, and course notes — then reconcile discrepancies between predicted and observed behavior in lab reports. In the capstone, this extends to synthesizing RPi documentation, gpiozero/pigpio API references, and measured GPIO signal data.

Unit Application: Electrical audit, rover schematic creation, capstone integration of datasheet specs, measured values, calculated predictions, RPi documentation, and GPIO signal data

CCSS RLST — Reading Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects (Grades 11–12)

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.11-12.3 — Follow Complex Technical Procedures

"Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks; analyze the specific results based on explanations in the text."

Unit connection: Every lab is a multistep technical procedure. In the capstone, students additionally follow the RPi Python rover architecture guide — a layered setup procedure involving OS configuration, library installation, pigpio daemon startup, BOARD pin mapping, and module imports — all of which must be executed in the correct order.

Unit Application: All lab procedures throughout the unit; Raspberry Pi OS configuration, library installation, pigpio daemon setup, and rover software deployment in the capstone

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.11-12.7 — Integrate Technical Information Across Formats

"Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media in order to address a question or solve a problem."

Unit connection: Students integrate schematic diagrams, truth tables, scope waveforms, datasheet ratings, their own measured data, and Python API documentation simultaneously to make design decisions and diagnose faults.

Unit Application: L298N truth table and oscilloscope verification, ultrasonic sensor pulse timing, fault diagnosis, capstone integration of gpiozero API, GPIO pinout, and oscilloscope measurements

CCSS WS — Writing Standards (Grades 11–12)

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.2 — Write Informative/Explanatory Texts

"Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately."

Unit connection: Lab reports require students to explain the relationship between their pre-lab calculations, measured results, and sources of error in clear technical prose. The Module 10 Final Presentation adds oral explanatory communication of rover electrical design and Python architecture decisions.

Unit Application: Lab reports across all topics, final presentation of rover electrical design and Python architecture, capstone design log

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.7 — Conduct and Report Research

"Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question or solve a problem."

Unit connection: Lab 4.2 (Power Budget) requires research into real component specs. Lab 6.5 requires independent datasheet research on motor driver thermal limits. The capstone Design Requirements Document requires research into RPi GPIO current limits, pigpio documentation, and gziozero MotorKit vs custom HAL trade-offs.

Unit Application: Power budget component research, motor driver thermal limit research, system audit documentation, capstone Design Requirements Document

CCSS WHSST — Writing in History/Social Studies/Science/Technical Subjects (Grades 11–12)

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.11-12.2 — Technical Explanatory Writing

"Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/experiments, or technical processes."

Unit connection: Lab reports follow the technical documentation format used in industry: purpose, hypothesis, procedure summary, data table (with units), calculations, measured vs. predicted comparison, analysis, and conclusion. The capstone design log extends this to multi-session engineering documentation.

Unit Application: All lab reports throughout the unit following technical documentation format; capstone multi-session engineering design log

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.11-12.7 — Technical Research Projects

"Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question or solve a problem, synthesizing multiple authoritative sources."

Unit connection: The Module 10 Rover Electrical System project and the Capstone Design Requirements Document both require sustained research (datasheets, component specifications, AWG wire tables, battery capacity ratings, RPi GPIO bank specifications) synthesized into a complete engineering design package.

Unit Application: Power budget research and documentation, KVL/KCL analysis write-up, electrical system audit, capstone Design Requirements Document

CCSS A-CED — Algebra: Creating Equations

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA-CED.A.1 — Equations in One Variable

"Create equations and inequalities in one variable and use them to solve problems; include equations arising from linear and quadratic functions."

Unit connection: Every Ohm's Law application (current-limiting resistor selection, expected motor current, LDR resistance from measured voltage) is a one-variable linear equation created from real circuit conditions. Students write the equation from context.

Unit Application: Ohm's Law applied to LED protection, series/parallel circuit analysis, voltage divider sensor circuits

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA-CED.A.2 — Equations in Two Variables

"Create equations in two or more variables to represent relationships between quantities; graph equations on coordinate axes with labels and scales."

Unit connection: Lab 8.2 (Motor Speed vs Duty Cycle Calibration Curve) builds a two-variable model (RPM as a function of PWM duty cycle), plotted on a labeled graph. In the capstone, this curve informs the Python speed constants used for straight-line driving and differential turning.

Unit Application: Motor speed vs. PWM duty cycle calibration curve, capstone rover speed constant selection from measured data

CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA-CED.A.4 — Rearrange Formulas

"Rearrange formulas to highlight a quantity of interest, using the same reasoning as in solving equations."

Unit connection: Daily algebraic manipulation of V = IR, P = IV, and the voltage divider formula, in the direction the circuit problem demands.

Unit Application: Ohm's Law rearrangement, power equation rearrangement, voltage divider formula rearrangement, KVL loop equations

NGSS ETS — Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Science

See HS-ETS1-1 in the NGSS section. Retained here for cross-reference.

See HS-ETS1-3 in the NGSS section. Retained here for cross-reference.

CSTA — Computer Science Teachers Association K–12 Standards

Source: CSTA K–12 Computer Science Standards, Revised 2017. Level 3A standards apply to all high school students; Level 3B applies to advanced elective CS coursework. All three below are appropriate for a Mechatronics RPi capstone.

CSTA 3A-AP-13 — Algorithms and Prototypes

"Create prototypes that use algorithms to solve computational problems by leveraging correct program logic, troubleshooting, and the incorporation of libraries and existing code."

Unit connection: The rover Python firmware is a prototype that solves a computational problem — autonomous navigation. Students leverage the gpiozero library (existing code), implement sensor-threshold and state-machine algorithms (correct program logic), and troubleshoot using Serial print debugging and GPIO voltage measurements (multimeter + oscilloscope). The layered HAL architecture means each layer is a testable prototype before system integration.

Unit Application: Raspberry Pi Python rover firmware — gpiozero library integration, sensor-threshold algorithms, state machine control logic, layered HAL architecture, multimeter and oscilloscope-assisted debugging

CSTA 3A-AP-17 — Systematic Program Design for Broad Audiences

"Systematically design and develop programs for broad audiences by incorporating feedback from users."

Unit connection: The rover firmware is designed to be understandable and modifiable by other students (broad audience), not just the author. Students apply the course's established coding conventions: BOARD pin numbering throughout, descriptive entry point filenames (not main.py), inline # LEARN: comments on non-obvious logic, module-level docstrings, and Git-committed code with meaningful commit messages. Peer code review during the capstone lab session provides the "feedback from users" the standard requires.

Unit Application: Python rover firmware written to professional coding conventions (BOARD pin numbering, descriptive entry point filenames, inline learning comments, module docstrings), peer code review, Git repository submission

CSTA 3B-AP-10 — Adapt Algorithms Across Problems

"Use and adapt classic algorithms to solve computational problems by recognizing that a particular algorithm can be adapted to solve multiple problems or that multiple algorithms can solve the same problem."

Unit connection: The ultrasonic obstacle avoidance algorithm (measure → compare → decide → actuate) is a classic threshold-response control pattern. Students recognize it as the same structural pattern as the IR line-following algorithm (read → compare → steer) and the photoresistor slow-zone algorithm (read → compare → reduce PWM). Adapting one pattern across three sensor types is exactly what 3B-AP-10 describes. Students document this explicitly in the software architecture section of their Final Presentation.

Unit Application: Ultrasonic obstacle avoidance, IR line-following, photoresistor slow-zone detection — all three implemented as the same structural threshold-response control pattern adapted across different sensor types; combined in the capstone autonomous mission

Main Standard

California CTE Engineering & Architecture — Engineering Technology Pathway:

B3.3 (primary): "Calculate, construct, measure, and interpret both AC and DC circuits." — Anchor standard for all 10 modules; the defining statement of what the AC/DC unit teaches.

B8.0 (capstone co-primary): "Understand fundamental control system design and develop systems that complete a task." — Anchor standard for the autonomous rover capstone; defines the engineering objective all other capstone standards serve.

Together, B3.3 and B8.0 span the complete arc from foundational electrical theory to implemented autonomous system — the vertical integration that makes this a Mechatronics course rather than either a pure electronics course or a pure programming course.

Priority Standards

The following four standards are Priority Standards — non-negotiable core demonstrating mastery required before the capstone. Assessed through lab reports, quizzes, the Module 10 Electrical Audit, and the Capstone Final Presentation.

Priority 1 — NGSS HS-PS3-1 (Energy Computational Models)
Students must use the Power Equation to calculate energy consumption for all rover subsystems and produce a battery runtime estimate. Assessed: Lab 4.2, Module 10 Electrical Audit.

Priority 2 — CA CTE B3.3 (AC/DC Circuit Analysis)
Students must calculate, construct, measure, and interpret series, parallel, and voltage divider circuits in the rover system. Assessed: Labs 2.1, 3.2, 5.1, 6.3, 10.2.

Priority 3 — CA CTE B8.4 (Program a Computing Device)
Students must write, deploy, and demonstrate a Python control program on a Raspberry Pi that produces correct autonomous rover behavior from sensor inputs. Assessed: Capstone autonomous mission demonstration and Git-submitted firmware.

Priority 4 — CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA-CED.A.4 (Formula Rearrangement)
Students must rearrange Ohm's Law and the voltage divider formula to solve for any unknown. Assessed: Module 2 and Module 5 quizzes, all lab calculation sections.

National Standards

ISTE Student Standard 4 — Innovative Designer

"Students use a variety of technologies within a design process to identify and solve problems by creating new, useful, or imaginative solutions."

Unit connection: The rover electrical design process (schematic → power budget → physical wiring → Python firmware → field test → refinement) is a complete technology-driven design cycle. The Raspberry Pi, KiCad, and Python together constitute the technology suite.

ISTE Student Standard 5 — Computational Thinker

"Students develop and employ strategies for understanding and solving problems in ways that leverage the power of technological methods to develop and test solutions."

Unit Application: Analog sensor scaling and ADC mapping, PWM duty cycle modeling, Python rover software decomposition into sensor-read, decision-logic, and motor-output layers

ISTE Student Standard 1c — Empowered Learner

"Students use technology to seek feedback that informs and improves their practice and to demonstrate their learning in a variety of ways."

Unit Application: Git-based peer code review, quantitative field test data analysis (mission outcomes, battery runtime, sensor false positives), Final Presentation of rover design and Python architecture

IEEE/ABET Electronics Competency — Circuit Analysis Fundamentals

"Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering to analyze and design electrical circuits and systems." (ABET Criterion 3, Student Outcomes — updated 2019 criteria, Outcome 1: Apply engineering knowledge; Outcome 6: Conduct experiments and interpret data.)

Unit connection: This unit directly develops the foundational competency underlying all electrical engineering and electronics technician certification pathways. Students completing this unit with the RPi capstone are positioned for direct articulation into De Anza College, Foothill College, SJSU, and CSULA electronics technology and computer engineering programs.

Resource Attribution:
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• Reference Text Book - Basic College Mathematics with Early Integers 4th edition - Elayn Martin-Gay - University of New Orleans - Pearson

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<Unit> - <Module Name> - Lessons - Daily/Weekly Lesson Plan

Key: 📰 Slides / Audio 🎧 / 📽️▶️ Video/YouTube / 🎧▶️📽️ Audio/Video / ✨ Resources /  🖼️ Tutorial / 📖 Reading Activity / 📝 Writing Activity / 📖 📝 Reading/Writing / 📟 Coding / 🛠️ LAB Activity / 🚀 Quiz /  🔎 Review /  ✔️ Mastery Check / ✍️ Sign Up /🍕 Extra Credit / 🕸️ Web Links / 👩🏽‍🎓🧑🏽‍🎓🧑🏿‍🎓👩‍🏫 Class / 🏵️📜📃 Certificate / 🗂️ 📈 Collecting Survey Data

/🧟 Review / 🦾 Practice / 🆙Level Up /

🎚️🦑📤🎯  🚧

- 🦑 Special Project -

Assignment Type: ⚓ Establishing (Minimum Standard) / ⛏️ Developing (Digging Deeper) / 💎 Aspiring (Putting It Together)

This is an ⚓ Establishing Assignment (Minimum Standard)  - "Everyone Do" Assignment

This is an ⛏️ Developing (Digging Deeper) - "Everyone Should Do, To Stretch" Assignment

This is an 💎 Aspiring (Putting It Together)  - "When you have done the ⚓ Establishing and⛏️ Developing" Assignment

• 🚀 Formative Quiz - 🔎 Review

• 🚀 Quiz -🔀 Mastery Path

• 🚀 Summative Quiz -✔️ Skills Mastery Check

Quiz - verify that they are all listed as a "Formative", "Mastery Path", or "Summative" 

• 🚀 Formative Quiz - These are quizzes that the students can take a few times. I have them either set for unlimited times, or 3-5 times, where the final score is their average. The idea is that these Formative Quizzes are designed for students to learn and master a skill.  while I want them to ger 100%, and when it's set to unlimited tries, the student should get 100% eventually.  When the quiz is set to 3-5 tries with an average, then they should be prepared and should take the quiz seriously. I set the quiz to not show the right answer, but I do let them see their wrong answer.  I also put the explanation of the right and wrong answer in the right and wrong answer prompt for each question.  That way they can see why they got the answer wrong and learn from that experience.  

  • 8.1.0.3.2.4 - Python - Ch 3 - Functions - Quiz #2 -Built-In Functions - 🚀 Formative Quiz

• 🚀 Quiz -🔀 Mastery Path - These Mastery path quizzes are to be presented after the student has had a chance to do some labs and some Formative quizzes.   The goal is to let students have 2 chances to take this quiz, and take the average of the 2 attempts.  Based on the average, they will be presented with a Canvas Mastery Path, where they will have an option for take additional quiz and assignments to help with remediation.  This will get them ready to take the Summative Quizzes.

  • 8.1.0.3.3.1 -  Python - Ch 3 - Functions - Mastery Quiz #1 - 🚀 Quiz -🔀 Mastery Path

• 🚀 Summative Quiz -✔️ Skills Mastery Check - These Mastery path quizzes are to be presented after the student has had a chance to do some labs and some Formative quizzes.   The goal is to let students have 2 chances to take this quiz, and take the average of the 2 attempts. That will be their final module/subject topic grade.

  • 8.1.0.3.3.1 -  Python - Ch 3 - Functions - Skills Mastery Check Quiz #1 - 🚀 Summative Quiz -✔️ Skills Mastery Check