The word “university” is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “an educational institution designed for instruction, examination, or both, of students in many branches of advanced learning.” To argue with this description seems absurd, as universities as we know them seem to match flawlessly; places of learning where one follows their own choice of many presented paths. This, however, was not always the case. Universities used to be flooded with students solely looking for a Protestant religious education, which would allow them to pursue a career within the church. Higher education evolved considerably through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when colleges and universities shifted from theological to secular curricula, altering the world we know today. Without this shift, modern day education would look drastically different.
With religion acting as the center of families, careers, and even communities, early colleges saw little need to update their curricula. As a result, courses would see little change through the start of the eighteenth century. America’s independence movements, however, served as a catalyst for changes in higher education. England had “increasingly [come] to be seen as old and decaying…” (Moroney 2001, 6). Patriots formulated a question that would spark the minds of university administrators: if universities are meant to educate Americans, why are they teaching based off an old English curriculum?
The first university in America came before the colonies had even gained their independence. In the early seventeenth century, John Harvard, a loyal Puritan and wealthy man, dedicated large sums of money and portions of his own personal library to eventually share a name with colonial America’s first college. Settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University, known as the “New College” at the time, opened its doors in 1636 with an essentially Puritan curriculum. Harvard was motivated by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, both of which are located in England. At the time of its founding, Harvard was far from “American” in both its values and curriculum.
By 1776, colonists began to fully see themselves as people of their own state, rather than people of England. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence, those advocating revision of the old college curricula had an even stronger voice. Not only were the courses based off English universities, but they were now essentially useless. The curriculum did not teach the skills that would be appropriate to Americans, who asked, “Why did colonists, who spoke English, need to spend… years learning Latin?” (Moroney 2001, 6).
By the nineteenth century, colleges had begun making significant changes to their curricula. Medicine and law erupted into popular areas of study, since previous education consisted of apprenticeships instead of formal education. By 1817, Harvard formed both their medical and law colleges (Cousins 2014). By 1825, Harvard and the College of William & Mary added courses like mathematics, history and declamation, English grammar, and natural philosophy (science) to their course catalogs (“Board” 1825, 7). This allowed students to pursue a wider range of careers, many of which were non-religious. While the options for non-religious courses were broadening, many universities clung to their roots. Students were still required to study theology, and many schools required students to take Greek and Latin, too. It was undeniably a challenge for curricula to evolve entirely, resulting in the maintaining of religious courses.
Reverend Horace Holley, former president of Transylvania University, was one of many college presidents who began to see the importance of non-religious education. In fact, his controversial views temporally tainted the reputation of his university. Across his personal journals, he expressed his idea that “…medicine and law seemed the most noteworthy examples of university instruction…” (Cousins 2014). During a trip to Columbia College, Holley noted his surprise at New York’s lack of effort in establishing a law school. Consequently, Columbia College nearly faced bankruptcy due to their outdated curriculum. By 1835, however, law and medical schools began rising all around the state.
The success of medical and law schools created an interest in universities to expand their areas of study. Colleges began to offer an almost endless number of degrees to students, including becoming professors themselves. By the second half of the nineteenth century, colleges had almost entirely strayed from religious degrees, as “98% of students earned a B.A. liberal arts degree, as opposed to a B.S. or religious course of study” (Mikulski 2014, 105).
Up until the late nineteenth century, universities were institutions mainly reserved for white, wealthy men. While some colleges existed for women and colored students, it was nearly unheard of for anyone of a different background to be successful in the university setting. With the slow shift from religious curricula, more Native Americans and African Americans, who may have different religious backgrounds, were being drawn into universities. The removal of religious course requirements resulted in greater diversity and religious freedom.
While “higher education remained rare and the majority of the population was excluded” (Mikulski 2018, 1), the idea of attending college was increasingly reaching the minds of women by the turn of the century. In the years to come, Harvard would introduce its sister university, Radcliffe College. Other colleges, which once only accepted males, would open their doors to women. Notable graduates included Catherine Brewer from Wesleyan College, Elizabeth Blackwell from Geneva Medical College, and Helen Keller from Radcliffe College.
Colleges began to strive for diversity within their student population. Universities became more open to different genders, races, and social classes. Although the idea was rejected at first, universities soon saw the benefits. The late eighteenth century Morrill Act enforced this change by establishing universities across the country in exchange for promising a diverse student body. Shifting from the original religiously oriented curriculum over time allowed for this to be possible, which created a domino effect that would increase diversity for centuries to come. Thomas Jefferson’s expectations from the beginnings of universities in America had certainly been exceeded, as he made clear “No one's talents would be wasted because of circumstances of birth” (Moroney 2001, 7), though Jefferson had referred most to class circumstances.
While universities had achieved a new level of diversity, they still favored certain backgrounds over others. Most commonly, sons of educated men, who were systemically white and wealthy, saw more benefits than other students. The sons were able to continue their family’s wealth through the opportunities granted to them by their fathers. The original source of a family’s wealth, however, often came from “an elite profession in law, commerce, medicine, or civil and military service.” (Mikulski 2014, 60) Evidently, status in a family was no longer associated with religion, but with the profession of one’s father.
As the focus of education evolved over time, the range of careers broadened. Curricula became secular over theological. Education had a tremendous impact on society, as more Americans became doctors and lawyers instead of ministers and priests. Eventually, the new religious freedom within universities sparked diversity and introduced a new population to higher education, which would continue to evolve over time. Without the complete remodeling of universities, all aspects of life in America might never have existed as they do today.
Works Cited
"The Board of Overseers of Harvard University." In Annual Report of the President of Harvard, 3-10. Cambridge, MA: University Press- Hilliard, Metcalf, 1825. Digital file.
"Course of Instruction." In Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the University in Cambridge, 42-47. Cambridge, MA: Metcalf and Company, 1846. Digital file.
"Course of Studies and Instructions, as Regulated by the Visitors." In Laws and Regulations of the College of William and Mary, 12-15. Williamsburg, VA, 1830. Digital file.
Cousins, James P. "'Character of a University': The Journey of a College President in the Early Republic." American Educational History Journal 41, nos. 1-2 (2014): 21+. Gale in Context: U.S. History.
Mikulski, Richard. "Education, Higher." In World of Antebellum America: A Daily Life Encyclopedia, edited by Alexandra Kindell, 801-04. ABC-CLIO, 2018. Last modified September 2018.
Mikulski, Richard M. Anglo-American Networks and the Early Academic Profession. Buffalo, NY: ProQuest, 2014.
Moroney, Siobhan. "Education in Early America." In Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton and Peter W. Williams. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2001. Gale in Context: U.S. History.
Schwartz, Robert A., and Craig Kridel. "Harvard University." In Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd ed., edited by James W. Guthrie, 994-96. Vol. 3. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA, 2002. Gale in Context: U.S. History.