I. Classical Freudians and Early Dissidents (Drive / Structural Orientation)

1. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939, Vienna → London)

Neurologist, founder of psychoanalysis. From Jewish, liberal-bourgeois Vienna, he turned Charcot-inspired work on hysteria into a theory of the unconscious, repression, and infantile sexuality. Major works: The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), Totem and Taboo (1913), Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). (Encyclopedia Britannica)
He co-founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (1908) and the IPA (1910), was the training analyst or supervisor for Ferenczi, Rank, Reik, Jones, Helene Deutsch and others, and had tense friendships with Adler and Jung that ended in major splits.

2. Josef Breuer (1842–1925, Vienna)
Physician and physiologist; worked with the hysterical patient “Anna O.” (Bertha Pappenheim) and developed the cathartic “talking cure”. Co-authored Studies on Hysteria (1895) with Freud, then distanced himself as Freud radicalized sexuality and infantile fantasy. Breuer remained a respected but somewhat “pre-analytic” precursor.

3. Lou Andreas-Salomé (1861–1937, St Petersburg → Berlin/Göttingen)
Writer-intellectual moving between Russian, German and French circles; friend and sometimes muse of Nietzsche and Rilke before entering Freud’s orbit in the 1910s. She trained with Freud, became a member of the Vienna Society, and practised in Göttingen. Her works (Die Erotik, 1911; essays on narcissism and female sexuality) develop a subtle phenomenology of desire, self-love and religious experience. She was more “free-floating satellite” than institutional leader but personally close to Freud and Anna Freud, representing a bridge to fin-de-siècle philosophy and literature.

4. Alfred Adler (1870–1937, Vienna → US)
Vienna physician, early member of Freud’s circle, then first major dissident (split 1911). Founded “individual psychology,” emphasizing inferiority feelings, compensation and social interest rather than sexual drives. Key texts: The Neurotic Constitution (1912), Understanding Human Nature (1927). His movement built its own training and popular-education networks; politically he leaned toward socialist reformism and educational work with children.

5. Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961, Switzerland)
Swiss psychiatrist, initially Freud’s “crown prince” and first IPA president. Broke with Freud (c. 1913) over libido theory and religion. Developed analytical psychology: archetypes, collective unconscious, individuation. Major works include Psychological Types (1921) and Symbols of Transformation (1912/52). He analysed Sabina Spielrein and engaged intensively with religious and mythological material, placing analysis closer to philosophical hermeneutics than to medicine.

6. Sándor Ferenczi (1873–1933, Budapest)
Hungarian physician, one of Freud’s closest collaborators and presidents of the IPA. He underwent analysis with Freud and influenced him in turn. Ferenczi developed ideas of trauma, elasticity of technique, and mutuality, culminating in the radical Clinical Diary (1932). He trained Balint, Mahler, and others; his conflict with the more authoritarian Viennese style prefigures later relational and trauma-centered movements.

7. Karl Abraham (1877–1925, Berlin)
German analyst, founding figure of the Berlin Society and Polyclinic (with Eitingon). He analysed Klein and Eitingon, built detailed theories of pregenital libido and depression, and refined Freud’s work on mourning and manic-depressive states. His clinical rigor and short, dense papers deeply shaped early object-relations thinking.

8. Max Eitingon (1881–1943, Gomel → Berlin → Jerusalem)
Wealthy Belorussian-Jewish physician who funded and organized the Berlin Institute (1920), the template for later training (tripartite: personal analysis, supervision, seminars). He was close to Freud and Abraham and chaired the IPA’s International Training Commission. After fleeing Nazism, he founded the Palestine Psychoanalytic Society and the Jerusalem/Israeli institute, carrying the Berlin model into a Zionist context.

9. Otto Rank (1884–1939, Vienna → Paris/US)
Freud’s secretary and early theoretical ally. In The Trauma of Birth (1924) he argued that separation anxiety and the trauma of birth precede and structure Oedipal conflict. After conflict with Freud about technique and authority, he left the movement and developed a more existential, will-centered therapy, later influencing some humanistic trends.

10. Theodor Reik (1888–1969, Vienna → Berlin → New York)
Lay analyst, one of Freud’s favorite pupils. His 1912 dissertation on the Fliess correspondence was the first PhD on psychoanalysis. Freud publicly defended Reik in The Question of Lay Analysis (1926) when medical authorities attacked him. Key books: Ritual: Psychoanalytic Studies (1931), The Need to Be Loved (1940), Listening with the Third Ear (1949). He stressed intuitive, countertransferential listening, anticipating later relational techniques; in New York he founded a lay-analytic institute (NPAP) in tension with the IPA medical establishment.

11. Ernest Jones (1879–1958, Wales → London)
Neurologist, organizer and historian. Founder of the British and Canadian Societies and long-time IPA president, he arranged Freud’s escape to London in 1938. His biography The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (3 vols, 1953–57) canonized a certain heroic narrative. Analysed by Ferenczi; he then analysed figures like Melanie Klein’s estranged daughter Melitta Schmideberg, and was crucial to the politics of the London disputes.

12. Helene Deutsch (1884–1982, Poland → Vienna → Boston)
Among the first female Vienna analysts, analysed by Freud. Her Psychoanalysis of the Sexual Functions of Women (1925) and The Psychology of Women (1944–45) tried to elaborate female psychosexual development within a largely Freudian framework, now often read critically. Emigrating to the US, she combined psychoanalytic work with psychiatry and contributed early descriptions of “as-if” personalities.

13. Sabina Spielrein (1885–1942, Russia/Switzerland)
Initially Jung’s patient at the Burghölzli, later an analyst and child psychologist. Her paper “Destruction as the Cause of Coming into Being” (1912) anticipates both Freud’s death drive and object-relations notions of ambivalence. She worked with children in Geneva and Moscow and had connections to Piaget and Luria. Marginalized for decades, she was later recognized as an original early theorist and a key figure at the Jung–Freud junction.

14. Siegfried Bernfeld (1892–1953, Galicia → Vienna/Berlin → US)
Youth educator, Zionist socialist, and early Vienna Society member. He ran war-orphan homes (Kinderheim Baumgarten) applying psychoanalysis to pedagogy. Later he joined the Berlin Society, then emigrated to the US, working on meta-theory: “Spurenwissenschaft” (psychoanalysis as a science of traces) and essays on observation, method and Freud’s scientific beginnings. He was both within the movement and a critical Marxist observer of its class and institutional positions.

15. Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957, Austria → Scandinavia → US)
Ferenczi-trained, one of the most radical Freudians. His Character Analysis (1933) shifted attention from symptoms to character armor; The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933) linked sexual repression, authoritarianism and fascism. A communist in the 1920s, he was expelled from both the Communist Party and the IPA. His later “orgone” theories and legal persecution in the US form a tragic, somewhat cautionary, epilogue to political psychoanalysis.

16. Otto Fenichel (1897–1946, Vienna/Berlin → US/Mexico)
Marxist-leaning synthesizer. Member of the Berlin group and editor of the clandestine “Rundbriefe” that kept exiled analysts in contact under Nazism. His Outline of Clinical Psychoanalysis (1945) codified mid-century Freudian orthodoxy, especially for American training. An important link between radical politics and institutional psychoanalysis, though his theoretical style is systematic rather than speculative.

II. Ego Psychology and Post-Freudian Structural / Developmental Lines

This strand crystallizes mainly in the US, emphasizing ego functions, defenses, adaptation and lifespan development in the context of exile, New Deal liberalism and post-war psychiatry.

17. Anna Freud (1895–1982, Vienna → London)
Freud’s youngest daughter and heir to much of his institutional authority. She underwent analysis with her father and later with herself described “self-analysis” and peer consultation. In The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936) she systematized defense theory and built child analysis as a clinical and institutional field (Hampstead War Nurseries, Hampstead Clinic). She led the “Anna Freud” camp in London’s Controversial Discussions against Klein, arguing for a more ego-psychological and developmental view of children.

18. Franz Alexander (1891–1964, Budapest/Berlin → Chicago)
Ferenczi pupil, analysed by him, later head of the Berlin Institute and then co-founder of the Chicago Institute. In Psychoanalysis of the Total Personality and Psychosomatic Medicine he linked analysis to internal medicine. His concept of a “corrective emotional experience” and his time-limited, modified techniques anticipated later brief psychodynamic therapy.

19. Sándor Rado (1890–1972, Budapest/Berlin → New York)
Trained in Budapest and Berlin (secretary of both societies), analysed by Ferenczi and Karl Abraham. In the US he led the New York/Columbia Institute, promoting an adaptive ego-psychology that stressed biological drives, reality testing and symptom relief. He wrote on depression, psychoses and addictions. Rado is emblematic of highly medicalized American psychoanalysis, often in tension with more classical or relational currents.

20. Heinz Hartmann (1894–1970, Vienna → New York)
Emigré analyst who became the “father of ego psychology.” In Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation (1939) he posited conflict-free ego spheres and a more autonomous ego that develops capacities for adaptation in a neutral environment. This supported a normative, stabilizing clinical stance suited to mid-century US psychiatry. He worked closely with Kris, Loewald and Jacobson.

21. Ernst Kris (1900–1957, Vienna → New York)
Art historian and analyst; studied caricature and propaganda (Psychoanalytic Explorations in Art, 1952). Developed the idea of regression in the service of the ego, linking creativity and analytic work. As an editor of Imago and later Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, Kris helped institutionalize a research tradition in child and ego psychology.

22. Edith Jacobson (1897–1978, Germany → US)
German analyst imprisoned by the Gestapo for resisting Nazism, later escaped to the US. Analysed by Karl Abraham. Her key works (The Self and the Object World, 1964) re-worked drive theory into a more object-relations-sensitive account of identity, self-esteem, depression and psychosis. She influenced Kernberg and later theories of borderline and narcissistic pathology.

23. Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994, Germany → US)
Artist-turned-teacher, analysed and trained in the Anna Freud milieu; later at Harvard and Berkeley. He reformulated Freud’s psychosexual stages into eight psychosocial crises across the life cycle in Childhood and Society (1950), and wrote biographical “psychohistories” (Young Man Luther, Gandhi’s Truth). (Center for Object Relations) He linked psychoanalysis to anthropology and developmental psychology, embedding the ego in culture and historical role.

24. Hans Loewald (1906–1993, Germany → US)
Philosophically sophisticated ego psychologist, influenced by Heidegger. He argued that internalization is a live, present-tense process in which the analytic relationship transforms both inner and outer reality; the analyst is a “new object” rather than neutral mirror. His essays (“On the Therapeutic Action of Psychoanalysis,” etc.) quietly but deeply shaped later relational and contemporary Freudian work.

III. British Object-Relations and the Independent Tradition

Here the focus shifts from drive to relationships and internal objects, in the cultural context of the British Empire’s decline, the Welfare State, and wartime dislocation. (Center for Object Relations)

25. Melanie Klein (1882–1960, Vienna/Budapest → Berlin → London)
Trained informally under Ferenczi; analysed by him and (controversially) by Abraham. In Berlin and later London she pioneered small-child analysis and developed object-relations theory: paranoid-schizoid vs depressive positions, projective identification, internal good/bad objects, and envy and gratitude. Key works: The Psycho-Analysis of Children (1932), “Notes on Some Schizoid Mechanisms” (1946), Envy and Gratitude (1957). (Wikipedia)
Her followers (Bion, Segal, Meltzer) formed a powerful London group in opposition to Anna Freud’s more ego-psychological camp.

26. Joan Riviere (1883–1962, UK)
Translator, analyst, and key Kleinian. She translated many of Freud’s and Klein’s papers into English, thereby shaping the English Freudian/Kleinian lexicon. Her classic essay “Womanliness as a Masquerade” (1929) conceptualized femininity as defensive performance, much later taken up by gender theory. Personally close to Klein, she also moved in Bloomsbury circles and analysed or supervised several British analysts.

27. James Strachey (1887–1967, UK)
Member of Bloomsbury; underwent analysis with Freud in Vienna and later with Klein. His paper “The Nature of the Therapeutic Action of Psycho-Analysis” (1934) introduced the concept of mutative interpretation—interpretations that transform the transference structure. As general editor/translator of the Standard Edition, often working with Alix Strachey and Riviere, he decisively shaped Freud’s English voice.

28. W. R. D. Fairbairn (1889–1964, Scotland)
Independent analyst, outside the main London power struggles. In his 1940s papers (later collected in Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality, 1952) he argued that libido is object-seeking, not pleasure-seeking, and described internal persecutory and exciting objects that organize personality. His thinking helped ground later theories of trauma, addiction and splitting.

29. Donald W. Winnicott (1896–1971, London)
Paediatrician and analyst, loosely aligned with the “Independent Group.” He developed concepts of the good-enough mother, holding environment, transitional object/space, and true vs false self. Major works: Playing and Reality (1971), numerous papers in the 1950s–60s. (Center for Object Relations)
He analysed or supervised Masud Khan and others; culturally, he linked psychoanalysis to post-war British social democracy and child-care policy.

30. Michael Balint (1896–1970, Budapest → London)
Ferenczi’s disciple and later key London figure. With his wife Enid Balint he developed Balint groups for general practitioners and the concept of a “basic fault” in early object-relations. His work bridged Budapest trauma-sensitivity and British object-relations, influencing primary care, marital therapy and later relational thinking.

31. Wilfred R. Bion (1897–1979, India/UK → Los Angeles)
WWI tank commander turned analyst. Analysed by Klein, he developed a powerful theory of thinking: container–contained, alpha function, transformations in O (ultimate reality). In Experiences in Groups (1961) he also elaborated group basic-assumption mentalities, drawing on his Northfield war-hospital experiments. His writings are central to post-Kleinian and group/institutional psychoanalysis.

32. Margaret Mahler (1897–1985, Hungary → US)
Child psychiatrist and analyst, trained in Budapest/Vienna circles then emigrated to New York. Famous for her separation–individuation theory (autistic, symbiotic, and separation–individuation phases), based on detailed infant observation and mother–child research (The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant, 1975). She integrates Budapest trauma tradition, ego psychology, and object-relations.

33. John Bowlby (1907–1990, London)
Originally an analyst in the British Society, trained with Klein and others; later clashed with Kleinians and Anna Freudians over his focus on real separation and deprivation. In collaboration with Mary Ainsworth he developed attachment theory, arguing that early attachment bonds are biologically primed systems with long-term mental health consequences. His WHO report Maternal Care and Mental Health (1951) influenced social policy. (EBSCO)

34. Hanna Segal (1918–2011, Poland → London)
Major post-Kleinian; analysed by Klein and herself the analyst of many later Kleinians. She systematized Kleinian theory and wrote key papers on symbol formation, psychosis, and aesthetics (Introduction to the Work of Melanie Klein, 1964). Politically active on the left, she applied Kleinian concepts to war, nuclear anxiety and ideology.

35. Donald Meltzer (1922–2004, UK)
American-born British analyst in the post-Kleinian group. Close to Bion and Segal, he elaborated ideas on projective identification, autism, and aesthetics (e.g. The Psycho-Analytical Process, Sexual States of Mind). His work, often in study groups in Italy and elsewhere, extended Kleinian/Bionian thinking into education and child psychotherapy.

36. Masud Raza Khan (1924–1989, India/Pakistan → London)
Trained and practised in London; analysed by Winnicott and closely connected to Anna Freud and the Hampstead Clinic. He wrote on cumulative trauma, secrecy and lying in families (The Privacy of the Self, 1963). Later revelations of boundary violations and misconduct turned him into a controversial figure, exposing darker sides of mid-century British analytic culture.

IV. Neo-Freudian, Interpersonal, and Social-Critical Currents

This cluster recenters culture, interpersonal patterns and social structures rather than drive, emerging especially in the US, Weimar and Frankfurt worlds.

37. Karen Horney (1885–1952, Germany → US)
German analyst who broke with orthodox Freudianism in the 1930s. She challenged penis envy and biological determinism, emphasizing basic anxiety and cultural pressures. Key works: The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (1937), Our Inner Conflicts (1945), Neurosis and Human Growth (1950). She described strategies of moving toward, against, and away from people, and co-founded the American Institute for Psychoanalysis after conflicts with the New York Society.

38. Frieda Fromm-Reichmann (1889–1957, Germany → US)
German-Jewish analyst and psychiatrist, initially in the Frankfurt-Heidelberg milieu, later at Chestnut Lodge Hospital in Maryland. She is known for intensive, long-term work with psychotic patients and for insisting on the possibility of meaningful psychoanalytic psychotherapy in psychosis. The novel I Never Promised You a Rose Garden is based on her. She was briefly married to Erich Fromm and maintained ties to humanistic and Frankfurt-School-adjacent circles.

39. Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949, US)
American psychiatrist whose “interpersonal theory of psychiatry” reconceived personality as a pattern of recurrent relationships. (Center for Object Relations)
In The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry (1953, posthumous) he emphasized detailed inquiry into here-and-now interactions, especially in schizophrenia, and influenced American interpersonal, relational and group psychotherapy. He founded the William Alanson White Institute, providing an institutional home for non-orthodox analysts.

40. Erich Fromm (1900–1980, Germany → US/Mexico)
Frankfurt-School-adjacent social philosopher and analyst. Combining Marx, Freud and humanist ethics, he explored authoritarianism, capitalism and character structure in Escape from Freedom (1941), Man for Himself (1947), The Sane Society (1955), The Art of Loving (1956). Politically a democratic socialist and pacifist, he exemplifies a consciously critical, ideological reading of psychoanalysis.

V. French Structuralist and Post-Structuralist Psychoanalysis

In post-war France, psychoanalysis intersects with Sartrean existentialism, structuralism, Marxism, linguistics and feminism.

41. Jacques Lacan (1901–1981, Paris)
Psychiatrist and analyst; early work on psychosis (doctoral thesis on paranoia, 1932) and the mirror stage. From the 1950s he re-reads Freud through Saussurean linguistics and structuralism, insisting that “the unconscious is structured like a language.” (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
His teaching—mainly in seminars published posthumously—elaborates the Imaginary/Symbolic/Real, objet a, and the four discourses. After conflicts with the IPA, he founded his own École Freudienne de Paris (1964). He analysed or supervised many French analysts; his circle was deeply entangled with French Marxism, structuralism and literary theory.

42. Françoise Dolto (1908–1988, France)
Paediatrician and child analyst, trained with Lagache and the Paris Society, later close to Lacan but somewhat independent. She popularized child psychoanalysis in France (radio programs, public interventions) and insisted on the child as a speaking subject within family and symbolic structures. Her work influenced French pedagogical and family policy debates.

43. Jean Laplanche (1924–2012, France)
Initially Lacanian, later critical. With Jean-Bertrand Pontalis he produced The Language of Psycho-Analysis (1967), the key conceptual lexicon of Freudian theory. (Wikipedia)
His “general theory of seduction” re-read Freud’s seduction theory: adults address the child with enigmatic, sexually over-determined messages the child cannot decode, producing unconscious sexuality. He combined clinical work with a strong interest in philosophy and translation.

44. Piera Aulagnier (1923–1990, Italy/France)
Analyst and early Lacanian who later split with Lacan over institutional politics and technique. She developed the concepts of pictogram, narrativization and the “violence of interpretation”, emphasizing how infant experience is inscribed and how analytic power can be traumatic. Active in the French and Italian left-analytic milieu.

45. André Green (1927–2012, Cairo → Paris)
Franco-Egyptian analyst, originally in the “second generation” of French Freudians. He worked on negative hallucination, the “dead mother” complex and border areas between neurosis and psychosis. His position mediates between Freudian, Kleinian and Lacanian lines, with strong attention to language and absence.

46. Julia Kristeva (b. 1941, Bulgaria → Paris)
Philosopher, literary critic and analyst. In works like Revolution in Poetic Language (1974) and Powers of Horror (1980) she integrates semiotics and psychoanalysis, developing notions of chora, abjection and the semiotic/symbolic. (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
She trained analytically in the Lacanian orbit while engaging with feminist and post-structuralist debates; politically she occupied a complex left-critical, sometimes controversial position.

47. Jacques-Alain Miller (b. 1944, France)
Philosophy student of Althusser, Lacan’s son-in-law and principal editor of Le Séminaire de Jacques Lacan. He systematized Lacan’s teaching, founded the École de la Cause freudienne (1981) and the World Association of Psychoanalysis, and orchestrated Lacanian expansion in Europe and Latin America. He embodies the post-Lacanian institutionalization and politicization of psychoanalytic discourse.

VI. Self-Psychology, Contemporary Object-Relations, Relational and Intersubjective, Feminist

This cluster (largely post-1960s, US/UK) is marked by narcissism/self, mutual influence, recognition and gender, emerging alongside civil-rights movements, feminism and the critique of authority.

48. Heinz Kohut (1913–1981, Vienna → Chicago)
Viennese refugee, neurologist and analyst in Chicago. Initially a respected Freudian, he broke with drive theory to found self psychology, focusing on narcissism and the need for empathic “selfobjects.” Main books: The Analysis of the Self (1971), The Restoration of the Self (1977). (Good Therapy)
Kohut was analysed by Ruth Eissler; he in turn trained many Chicago analysts. His work responded to post-war concerns with identity, meaning and idealization rather than guilt and repression.

49. Otto Kernberg (b. 1928, Vienna/Chile → New York)
Austrian-Chilean–American analyst, trained in both Kleinian/object-relations and ego-psychological traditions. He developed a structural theory of borderline personality organization and pathological narcissism, integrating aggression, internal object relations and defenses. Key works: Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (1975), Severe Personality Disorders (1984). He led the Personality Disorders Institute at Cornell and has been a central IPA figure, often debating Kohut on narcissism.

50. Christopher Bollas (b. 1943, UK/US)
Kleinian/Winnicottian analyst and literary critic. His notions of the unthought known, the idiom of the self and the transformational object (e.g. The Shadow of the Object, 1987) describe how deeply implicit early experiences shape subjective style. He applies analytic ideas to culture, politics and literature, making him a key contemporary figure for humanities-oriented psychoanalysis.

51. Thomas Ogden (b. 1946, US)
American analyst, strongly influenced by Bion and Winnicott. He developed the concept of the analytic third (the co-created analytic field) and an “autistic-contiguous” position complementing Klein’s paranoid-schizoid and depressive positions. Books include The Matrix of the Mind (1986), Subjects of Analysis (1994). His detailed clinical writing models an experiential, phenomenological style.

52. Stephen A. Mitchell (1946–2000, US)
Historian and theorist, main architect of the relational turn. With Jay Greenberg he wrote Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory (1983), mapping British and American schools; later, Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis (1988) and Hope and Dread in Psychoanalysis (1993). He re-interpreted Freud, Klein, Sullivan, Kohut, etc. as variants of a field theory of two-person psychology. Co-founded the journal Psychoanalytic Dialogues and the William Alanson White Institute’s relational program.

53. Jay R. Greenberg (b. 1942, US)
Co-author with Mitchell; clinically associated with relational and interpersonal traditions. His work emphasizes that any analytic theory organizes the clinical relationship in particular ways, so plurality of theories implies plural transference–countertransference configurations.

54. Robert D. Stolorow (b. 1942, US)
Leader of the intersubjective school with Atwood and Orange. In Structures of Subjectivity and later works he interprets psychoanalysis as a phenomenology of being-with, stressing affect regulation, trauma and contextuality over drive/structure. He critiques “one-person” models and engages explicitly with philosophical phenomenology (Husserl, Heidegger).

55. Nancy Chodorow (b. 1944, US)
Analyst and sociologist, trained in San Francisco. In The Reproduction of Mothering (1978) she combined object-relations with feminist sociology to explain how gendered personalities are reproduced through mothering patterns. Later works (e.g. Femininities, Masculinities, Sexualities) continue this project. She links psychoanalysis to gender theory and social reproduction.

56. Jessica Benjamin (b. 1946, US)
Relational analyst and feminist. In Bonds of Love (1988) and later works she integrated Hegelian recognition, feminist theory and psychoanalysis to analyze domination–submission, sadomasochism and gender. Her concept of thirdness (the shared space of recognition beyond dyadic enactment) is central in contemporary relational technique.

57. Juliet Mitchell (b. 1940, UK)
Literary critic and analyst who defended Freud in early Anglo-American feminism. Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1974) argued that Freud’s theory describes, rather than prescribes, patriarchy and can be used critically. Later she developed a theory of sibling relations and seriality as neglected dimensions in psychoanalysis (Sibling Relations and the Transformation of Identity, 2003). She trained analytically in London, engaging both Kleinian and Lacanian lines.

VII. Latin-American, Group-Analytic and Postcolonial Transformations

In Latin America and decolonial contexts, psychoanalysis intertwines with Marxism, dependency theory, liberation movements and anti-colonial struggle.

58. Enrique Pichon-Rivière (1907–1977, Switzerland → Argentina)
Swiss-born Argentine analyst, trained in the Buenos Aires Kleinian milieu. He developed operative groups and a dialectical conception of group and institutional analysis, seeing mental illness as a disturbance in learning and social communication. His work linked psychoanalysis to early Latin-American social psychology and community mental health.

59. José Bleger (1923–1972, Argentina)
Argentine analyst with a Marxist background. Influenced by Klein and Pichon-Rivière, he described “glischroid” or undifferentiated states at the base of the personality and analysed institutions as having psychotic cores. His work fed into Latin-American institutional psychotherapy, political psychoanalysis and critical pedagogy.

60. Frantz Fanon (1925–1961, Martinique → France → Algeria/Tunisia)
Psychiatrist, revolutionary and theorist of colonial racism. In Black Skin, White Masks (1952) and The Wretched of the Earth (1961) he used psychoanalytic ideas to analyse colonial subjectivity, internalized racism and revolutionary violence. (Wikipedia)
Working in colonial psychiatric hospitals in Algeria, he saw how European psychiatry misrecognized colonial conditions; his critique opened a major line of postcolonial psychoanalytic and political thought.