Embedded Files
The social psychological approach to understanding social behavior goes beyond the mere observation of human actions. Social psychologists believe that a true understanding of the causes of social behavior can only be obtained through a systematic scientific approach, and that is why they conduct scientific research. Social psychologists believe that the study of social behavior should be empirical—that is, based on the collection and systematic analysis of observable data.
Much of social psychology research is rooted in the scientific method. The scientific method usually begins with observing the world around us and thinking of an interesting question. The next step involves generating a specific testable prediction, or hypothesis. Next, scientists must operationalize the variables they are studying. This means they must figure out a way to define and measure abstract concepts. Creating specific operational definitions allows scientists to precisely manipulate the independent variable, or “cause” (the presence of others), and to measure the dependent variable, or “effect” (performance)—in other words, to collect data. Clearly described operational definitions also help reveal possible limitations to studies and help later researchers replicate them precisely.
History of Social Psychology research
History of Social Psychology research
The history of social psychology research is a complex and rich tapestry that has evolved over time, influenced by various theoretical perspectives, historical events, and cultural shifts. Here's a broad overview of its development:
Early Foundations (Late 19th - Early 20th Century): The roots of social psychology can be traced back to the late 19th century with the work of scholars like Gustave Le Bon and Gabriel Tarde, who explored crowd behavior and social influence. However, the field truly began to take shape in the early 20th century.
Gestalt Psychology and Behaviorism (1920s - 1930s): During this period, researchers like Kurt Lewin emphasized the importance of studying behavior within its social context. Lewin's work laid the foundation for modern social psychology by focusing on the interaction between individuals and their environment. Behaviorism also played a role in shaping the field, with researchers like Floyd Allport examining the role of social stimuli in influencing behavior.
The Cognitive Revolution (1950s - 1960s): The 1950s and 1960s saw a shift towards cognitive approaches to social psychology. Researchers like Leon Festinger explored cognitive dissonance, Solomon Asch studied conformity, and Stanley Milgram investigated obedience to authority. These studies highlighted the power of social influence and the cognitive processes underlying social behavior.
The Rise of Social Cognition (1970s - 1980s): Social psychologists started focusing on cognitive processes such as attribution, impression formation, and stereotyping. The field began to explore how individuals interpret and make sense of social information.
Social Identity Theory and Intergroup Relations (1970s - 1990s): The work of Henri Tajfel and John Turner led to the development of social identity theory, which explores how people categorize themselves and others into social groups and how this influences behavior. This era also saw research on intergroup dynamics, prejudice, and discrimination.
Evolutionary Psychology and Neuroscience (1990s - 2000s): Researchers began integrating insights from evolutionary psychology and neuroscience into social psychology. They explored how certain behaviors and cognitive processes might have evolved to serve social functions.
Applied Social Psychology and Cultural Context (2000s - Present): Social psychology expanded its focus on applied topics such as health behavior, environmental sustainability, and intercultural interactions. There has also been an increasing recognition of the importance of cultural context in shaping social psychological phenomena.
Technology and Online Behavior (2000s - Present): The advent of the internet and social media has opened new avenues for studying social behavior. Researchers are now exploring topics such as online identity, virtual communities, and the impact of digital technology on social interactions.
Throughout its history, social psychology has been influenced by interdisciplinary collaboration, political and social events, and shifts in theoretical paradigms. The field continues to evolve, with researchers addressing contemporary issues such as social media's impact on self-esteem, the psychology of misinformation, and the role of implicit bias in decision-making.
Ethics in Social Psychology research
Ethics in Social Psychology research
For better or worse (but probably for worse), when we think about the most unethical studies in psychology, we think about social psychology. Imagine, for example, encouraging people to deliver what they believe to be a dangerous electric shock to a stranger. This is considered a “classic” study in social psychology. Or, how about having students play the role of prison guards, deliberately and sadistically abusing other students in the role of prison inmates. Yep, social psychology too. Of course, both Stanley Milgram’s (1963) experiments on obedience to authority and the Stanford prison study (Haney et al., 1973) would be considered unethical by today’s standards, which have progressed with our understanding of the field. Today, we follow a series of guidelines and receive prior approval from our institutional research boards before beginning such experiments. Among the most important principles are the following:
Informed consent: In general, people should know when they are involved in research, and understand what will happen to them during the study (at least in general terms that do not give away the hypothesis). They are then given the choice to participate, along with the freedom to withdraw from the study at any time. It’s important to note that certain kinds of methods—such as naturalistic observation in public spaces, or archival research based on public records—do not require obtaining informed consent.
Privacy: Although it is permissible to observe people’s actions in public—even without them knowing—researchers cannot violate their privacy by observing them in restrooms or other private spaces without their knowledge and consent. Researchers also may not identify individual participants in their research reports (we typically report only group means and other statistics). With online data collection becoming increasingly popular, researchers also have to be mindful that they follow local data privacy laws, collect only the data that they really need (e.g., avoiding including unnecessary questions in surveys), restrict access to the raw data, and have a plan in place to securely destroy the data after it is no longer needed.
Risks and Benefits: People who participate in psychological studies should be exposed to risk only if they fully understand the risks and only if the likely benefits clearly outweigh those risks. The Stanford prison study is a notorious example of a failure to meet this obligation. It was planned to run for two weeks but had to be shut down after only six days because of the abuse suffered by the “prison inmates.” But even less extreme cases, such as researchers wishing to investigate implicit prejudice using the IAT, need to be considerate of the consequences of providing feedback to participants about their unconscious biases. Similarly, any manipulations that could potentially provoke serious emotional reactions or relatively permanent changes in people’s beliefs or behaviors need to be carefully reviewed by the Institutional Review Board.
Deception: Social psychologists sometimes need to deceive participants (e.g., using a cover story) to hide the true nature of the study. This is typically done to prevent participants from modifying their behavior in unnatural ways, especially in laboratory or field experiments. For example, when Milgram recruited participants for his experiments on obedience to authority, he described it as being a study of the effects of punishment on memory! Deception is typically only permitted (a) when the benefits of the study outweigh the risks, (b) participants are not reasonably expected to be harmed, (c) the research question cannot be answered without the use of deception, and (d) participants are informed about the deception as soon as possible, usually through debriefing.
Debriefing: This is the process of informing research participants as soon as possible of the purpose of the study, revealing any deceptions, and correcting any misconceptions they might have as a result of participating. Debriefing also involves minimizing harm that might have occurred. For example, an experiment examining the effects of sad moods on charitable behavior might involve inducing a sad mood in participants by having them think sad thoughts, watch a sad video, or listen to sad music. Debriefing would therefore be the time to return participants’ moods to normal by having them think happy thoughts, watch a happy video, or listen to happy music.
Research Methods in Social Psychology
Research Methods in Social Psychology
In this section, we'll learn about different methods social psychologists use to study how we think, act, and interact with others. These methods help us understand why we do what we do and how we are influenced by the world around us. We'll explore four key ways scientists gather information:
Self-Report Measures: These methods involve asking people about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Often these methods involve asking participants to fill out a questionnaire or answer interview questions about how they see the world.
Observational Measures: Sometimes social psychologists systematically observe their research participants in their natural social environment. Usually, social psychologists observe in a systematic way and analyze the data into themes and patterns.
Biological Measures: Researchers might measure things like heart rate, brain activity, or even hormone levels to understand how our bodies respond in social situations.
Experimental Measures: Researchers set up controlled experiments to see how different factors affect people's behavior. Experimental methods are better able to investigate causal relationships between variables than the other measures.
Throughout the rest of the course, we will explore social psychological research so be prepared to flip back to this section periodically as understanding methods are a large part of understanding and critiquing research studies.
Self-Report Measures
Self-Report Measures
Social psychologists use self-report measures as a valuable tool to gather information about people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These measures involve directly asking individuals to report on their own experiences, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors. Here's how social psychologists use self-report measures in their research:
Questionnaires and Surveys: Researchers design questionnaires or surveys with carefully crafted questions that aim to uncover specific information. These questions can cover a wide range of topics, such as attitudes toward certain issues, feelings about a particular situation, or experiences related to social interactions. Participants read and respond to the questions based on their personal experiences and opinions.
Interviews: In some cases, researchers conduct interviews to gather more in-depth information. During interviews, participants engage in one-on-one conversations with researchers, who ask open-ended questions. This method allows researchers to probe deeper into participants' thoughts and feelings, providing a richer understanding of their perspectives. Interviews can also be done in groups, which are called focus groups and involve a group of participants discussing a topic that is relevant to all of them.
Likert Scales: Social psychologists often use Likert scales, where participants rate their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements. For instance, participants might be asked to rate their agreement with statements like "I feel comfortable speaking in public" or "I believe diversity is important in our society." The responses are then quantified, allowing researchers to analyze and compare participants' attitudes.
Diaries and Journals: Participants may be asked to keep daily diaries or journals, where they record their experiences, thoughts, and emotions over a period of time. This provides researchers with a more natural and dynamic view of participants' lives and how social interactions impact them.
Online and Mobile Apps: With the advent of technology, researchers can collect self-report data through online platforms and mobile apps. Participants can respond to questionnaires and surveys conveniently, and researchers can gather data from a broader range of participants and locations.
Implicit Measures: Self-report measures can also be used to assess implicit attitudes or biases that participants might not be consciously aware of. These measures often involve tasks that reveal subconscious preferences, helping researchers uncover hidden beliefs.
Social psychologists carefully design self-report measures to ensure they're clear, unbiased, and reliable. However, researchers also recognize that self-report data might be influenced by factors like social desirability bias (participants responding in ways they think are socially acceptable) or memory recall errors. Despite these limitations, self-report measures remain a valuable tool for understanding the internal experiences and perspectives of individuals in various social contexts.
Observational Measures
Observational Measures
One of the most basic research designs, observational research, is research that involves making observations of behavior and recording those observations in an objective manner. Although it is possible in some cases to use observational data to draw conclusions about the relationships between variables (e.g., by comparing the behaviors of older versus younger children on a playground), in many cases the observational approach is used only to get a picture of what is happening to a given set of people at a given time and how they are responding to the social situation. In these cases, the observational approach involves creating a type of “snapshot” of the current state of affairs.
One advantage of observational research is that in many cases it is the only possible approach to collecting data about the topic of interest. A researcher who is interested in studying the impact of an earthquake on the residents of Tokyo, the reactions of Israelis to a terrorist attack, or the activities of the members of a religious cult cannot create such situations in a laboratory but must be ready to make observations in a systematic way when such events occur on their own. Thus observational research allows the study of unique situations that could not be created by the researcher. Another advantage of observational research is that the people whose behavior is being measured are doing the things they do every day, and in some cases they may not even know that their behavior is being recorded.
Biological Measures
Biological Measures
Social neuroscience has been useful for studying how social categorization occurs without having to rely on self-report measures, instead measuring brain activity differences that occur when people encounter members of different social groups. Much of this work has been recorded using the electroencephalogram, or EEG. EEG is a measure of electrical activity generated by the brain’s neurons. Comparing this electrical activity at a given point in time against what a person is thinking and doing at that same time allows us to make inferences about brain activity associated with specific psychological states. One particularly nice feature of EEG is that it provides very precise timing information about when brain activity occurs. EEG is measured non-invasively with small electrodes that rest on the surface of the scalp. This is often done with a stretchy elastic cap, into which the small electrodes are sewn. Researchers simply pull the cap onto the subject’s head to get the electrodes into place; wearing it is similar to wearing a swim cap. The subject can then be asked to think about different topics or engage in different tasks as brain activity is measured.
Charting the brain's electrical activity at a hospital in Lahore, Pakistan
(used under CC-BY-SA license from Baitaal on Wikimedia Commons)
In this video, learn more about research with EEGs.
fMRI at Imperial College London
(used under CC-BY-SA license from Thomas Angus on Wikimedia Commons)
EEGs can provide information about the general patterns of electrical activity within the brain but do not provide a very clear picture of the structure of the brain. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a neuroimaging technique that uses a magnetic field to create images of brain structure and function. In research studies that use the fMRI, the research participant lies on a bed within a large cylindrical structure containing a very strong magnet. Nerve cells in the brain that are active use more oxygen, and the need for oxygen increases blood flow to the area. The fMRI detects the amount of blood flow in each brain region and thus is an indicator of which parts of the brain are active.
Very clear and detailed pictures of brain structures can be produced via fMRI. Often, the images take the form of cross-sectional “slices” that are obtained as the magnetic field is passed across the brain. The images of these slices are taken repeatedly and are superimposed on images of the brain structure itself to show how activity changes in different brain structures over time. Normally, the research participant is asked to engage in tasks while in the scanner, for instance, to make judgments about pictures of people, to solve problems, or to make decisions about appropriate behaviors. The fMRI images show which parts of the brain are associated with which types of tasks. Another advantage of the fMRI is that is it noninvasive. The research participant simply enters the machine and the scans begin.
What happens In an MRI machine?
How are fMRIs used to study emotions?
Experimental Measures
Experimental Measures
The goal of much research in social psychology is to understand the causal relationships among variables, and for this we use experiments. Experimental research designs include the manipulation of a given situation or experience for two or more groups of individuals who are initially created to be equivalent, followed by a measurement of the effect of that experience. In an experimental research design, the variables of interest are called the independent variables and the dependent variables. The independent variable refers to the situation that is created by the experimenter through the experimental manipulations, and the dependent variable refers to the variable that is measured after the manipulations have occurred. In an experimental research design, the research hypothesis is that the manipulated independent variable (or variables) causes changes in the measured dependent variable (or variables).
Experimental designs have two important benefits:
First, they make sure that the thing we change (independent variable) happens before we measure the thing we're interested in (dependent variable). This stops any confusion about which one caused the other.
Second, when we change something in an experiment, we can be sure that other things didn't cause the changes. This is because we treat all the groups in the experiment the same way before we make any changes. This helps us be confident that the changes we see are because of what we did and not because of something else.
The most common method of creating equivalence among the experimental conditions is through random assignment to conditions before the experiment begins, which involves determining separately for each participant which condition he or she will experience through a random process, such as drawing numbers out of an envelope or using a website such as randomizer.org.
Despite the advantage of determining causation, experimental research designs do have limitations. One is that the experiments are usually conducted in laboratory situations rather than in the everyday lives of people. Therefore, we do not know whether results that we find in a laboratory setting will necessarily hold up in everyday life. To counter this, researchers sometimes conduct field experiments, which are experimental research studies that are conducted in a natural environment, such as a school. However, they are difficult to conduct because they require a means of creating random assignment to conditions, and this is frequently not possible in natural settings.
A second and perhaps more important limitation of experimental research designs is that some of the most interesting and important social variables cannot be experimentally manipulated. If we want to study the influence of the size of a mob on the destructiveness of its behavior, or to compare the personality characteristics of people who join suicide cults with those of people who do not join suicide cults, these relationships must be assessed using correlational designs because it is simply not possible to manipulate mob size or cult membership.
Resources used on this page:
Page updated
Google Sites
Report abuse