Key Concepts
Disclaimer: Theories operate with concepts; and the choice of concepts also defines the theory itself. The claim has been made that modernity tries to purify categories that are actually blurred, fluid, and hybrid, such as the distinctions nature/culture, human/nonhuman, or subject/object. In modern times, the Enlightenment view of science as an objective arbiter of truth has been extended into the field of the social sciences as well, which leads to behavioral sciences that ignore values, biases, rhetoric, and power dynamics inherent in scientific practice. We should also be skeptical of universal knowledge claims and grand narratives, and instead embrace a dialogic approach to social sciences that accepts pluralism and recognizes the value of diverse perspectives.
Categories and Concepts
The following list of 50 concepts from the field of social and political science is just a starting point for orientation; I have tentatively grouped them into 9 categories:
Types of People: Nomads, Mercurians, Apollonians, Athenians, Spartans
Social Structures: Imperial Nations, Nationalities, Ethnies, Nomads, Tribalism, Feudalism, Apartheid, Colonialism, Multiculturalism
Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Conservatism, Republicanism, Anarchism, Socialism, Fascism, Totalitarianism, Populism, Nationalism, Secularism
Economic Systems: Capitalism, Socialism, Feudalism, Imperialism, Colonialism, Globalization, Industrialization, Modernity
Forms of Governance: Monarchy, Republic, Democracy, Sovereignty, Citizenship, Federalism, Seccession, Civil Society, Propaganda, Revolution
Group Identity: Nationality, Ethnicity, Race, Gender, Individualism, Assimilation, Racism, Nationalism, Tribalism, Apartheid
Rights and Freedoms: Citizenship, Human Rights, Civil Society, Sovereignty, Feminism, Gender
Ideas and Conditions: Enlightenment, Rationalism, Subjectivity, Alienation, Environmentalism, Genocide, Propaganda, Racism, Secularism
Periods and Events: Modernity, Industrialization, Revolutions, Ethnic Succession
Concepts:
Apollonians - Western European peoples who are individualistic, competitive, and mercantile. You can contrast them with more collectivist groups.
Mercurians - Mobile groups of traders, entrepreneurs, and professionals. They are associated with Apollonian cultures. - The lubricant in the machinery of society.
Athenians - Western intellectual elites who serve as cultural or spiritual leaders.
Spartans - Militaristic western groups focused on discipline and conquest.
Nomads - Groups without fixed borders or settlements like Roma and Sinti peoples. Known for mobility and adaptability.
Tribalism - Loyalty to a tribe or similar group based on kinship and common culture. Pre-modern identity.
Monarchy - Government led by a monarch, such as a king, queen, or emperor. Common historically, and we still have many monarchs today. Marocco, Denmark, Brunei, UK, Thailand, etc.
Imperial nations - Peoples that established large multi-ethnic empires like Russia. They absorbed diverse groups.
Nationalities - Ethnic and language groups that formed the basis for modern nation states.
Ethnicity - Identity and classification based on cultural factors like language, ancestry, religion.
Ethnicities - Pre-modern ethnic groups and identities. You can contrast them with more modern nationalities.
Feudalism - The medieval economic and social system based on nobles granting land to vassals. Gradually replaced.
Assimilation - The process by which minority groups adopt the culture and identity of the dominant group.
Ethnic succession - The process whereby the elites of an imperial nation are replaced by rising nationalities. Germans in the Roman Empire, Jews in early socialist Russia.
Nationalism - Loyalty and attachment to a national identity or homeland. See the rise of nationalism in Europe.
Citizenship - Legal recognition and rights granted to members of a state. Evolving concept.
Capitalism - An economic system based on private property, markets, and capital accumulation. Historically, it developed in Western Europe, and is now a global structure.
Socialism - An economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production. It breaks down into socialist movements which exist in many countries.
Secularism - The separation of religion from state institutions and governance. Today, we have to contrast secular and religious worldviews as a major divider in public life.
Individualism - The moral stance that emphasizes individual liberty and self-reliance. Contrasted with collectivism.
Republicanism - A political ideology centered on liberty, rule of law, and limiting the power of elites.
Republic - A government where power is held by the people and representatives, not a monarch.
Imperialism - The policy of extending a nation's power through military force or other means.
Colonialism - The policy of a nation extending control over and settling in distant territories. We are still living in the shadow of 18th and 19th century colonialism, esp. in Africa
Modernity - The historical period marked by industrialization, rationalism, and rejection of tradition.
Totalitarianism - A political system of absolute control over citizens enforced by the state. Examples are everywhere: The USSR was a major historical reality in the 20th century; totalitarian regimes exist today in Russia, China, North Korea, Venezuela, Syria, and so on.
Feminism - The advocacy of social, political, and economic rights for women. The status of feminism differs from country to country, in the US we have at least three waves of feminism starting in the early 20th century. It manifests through gender politics and women's movements.
Gender - Social and cultural distinctions between masculinity and femininity. Today, gender roles are shifting, and the correlate term, Patriarchy, has been used as a major tool by feminists to analyze the structure of families and societies.
Environmentalism - The political movement seeking to protect the natural environment and ecosystems. Related to critiques of industrialization.
Populism - A political style and movement that appeals to ordinary people who feel excluded from power.
Multiculturalism - The preservation and promotion of multiple cultures within a society. Debated response to diversity.
Civil society - The voluntary associations and organizations outside of the state. Seen as vital for democracy.
Racism - Prejudice and discrimination based on perceived racial differences. What are its roots and impacts? - A pressing question for many societies, but especially virulent in the US today.
Globalization - The increased economic, social, and cultural exchange between nations. Alters traditional societies.
Human rights - The basic entitlements of all human beings, often codified in laws. Expanded rapidly in 20th century.
Sovereignty - The supreme power and authority within a territory. Key to development of nation-states.
Conservatism - Favoring traditional values, gradual change, and established institutions.
Liberalism - A political ideology focused on individual liberties, consent of the governed, and equality.
Anarchism - The opposition to all forms of authoritarian control, favoring self-governance and voluntary cooperation.
Federalism - A system of government with divided powers between a central authority and constituent units.
Secession - The withdrawal of a territory or community from a larger entity. There are many secessionist movements today.
Propaganda - The spreading of biased or misleading information to promote a cause or viewpoint. Used extensively by regimes.
Internationalism - Cooperation and community between nations. An alternative to nationalism.
Revolution - The forceful overthrow of an existing political authority and social order. Such as the Russian Revolution.
Fascism - An authoritarian nationalist ideology focused on loyalty to the state and obedience to a strong leader.
Apartheid - An institutionalized system of segregation and discrimination like in South Africa.
Genocide - The deliberate mass killing of a national, ethnic, racial or religious group. A tragic recurring phenomenon.
Alienation - The sense of estrangement or separation people may feel from their work, society, or humanity itself.
Rationalism - The philosophy based on reason as the primary source of knowledge. Arose during the Enlightenment.
Subjectivity - The condition of human thoughts, feelings, and experiences being based on an individual's perspective.