The Circular Economy
and its impact on environmental health
Ruby Mitchell
MPH Candidate, 2023
OHSU-PSU School of Public Health
"If all the world is a commodity, how poor we grow.
When all the world is a gift in motion, how wealthy we become."
Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass (2013)
How do we create a waste-free world?
In a Circular Economy, there is no "waste" in the common definition of the word.
Residual materials are valued, reused, and repurposed with the goal to eliminate the need for costly waste management. Around the world, incredible examples of ingenuity and cooperation are demonstrating that this kind of shift in production can have a significant impact on the health of our planet and the living organisms (including humans!) that live here.
The Global Material Footprint
How much do we need? This infographic gives a snapshot of our current material use, and waste, in numbers.
(click to expand)
Source: Circle Economy
Linear to Circular Systems Thinking
A linear economic model follows a "take, consume, toss" approach. This has marked humans as deviators from the cyclical flow of resources seen in the rest of the natural world.
LINEAR
"Material is WASTE if it no longer has value."
(Frumkin, 2016)
CIRCULAR
"WASTE is a design flaw."
(Kenzig, 2020)
In light of pressing environmental concerns, the Circular Economic model presents ideas and strategies for adopting a different approach to production and consumption.
What is waste and how does it impact the health and wellbeing of humans?
Waste can come from homes, commercial buildings, construction sites, manufacturing plants, hospitals, and hazardous clean-up efforts. It can be solid, gaseous, or liquid, but the shared quality is that it needs to be stored somewhere, managed, and monitored for toxic elements that can become significant health problems. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are one on these elements. The word "persistent" is used intentionally in the name! These compounds are lipophilic, which means they are stored in fatty tissues and do not leave the body after they have been ingested. Once introduced, they are passed on in the environment and in our bodies through the food chain and reproduction. (Frumkin, 2016)
Waste as an Environmental Health Problem
The Links in the Chain
Persistent organic pollutants and dioxins accumulate in fatty tissues and build up in the human body (Frumkin, 2016).
Source: Nathan Newell Griffith from NounProject.com
Waste materials are produced in excess, and stored in either end-of-life sites, or in open dumps.
Source: Nawicon from NounProject.com
Deterioration or burning in unregulated systems leads to leaching and pollution of toxic chemicals.
Source: Jhem Garcia at PNGitem
Dioxins are formed from these toxic chemicals, and enter the food chain.
Source: PNGitem
Humans consume dioxins in animal products, and when exposed to polluted air and water.
Source: Eucalyp from NounProject.com
Dioxins bioaccumulate in the human body, lowering reproductive rates and increasing cancer risk.
Source: i cons from NounProject.com
Dioxins can be passed from mother to fetus in concentration, leading to birth defects (Brady, 2012).
The Circular Economy as a Solution
"If we could build an economy that could use things, rather than use them up, we could build a future that really could work in the long term." (Ellen MacArthur, 2019)
According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, the Circular Economy is a systems based framework that looks to separate our economic systems from consuming finite resources (EMF, n.d.b). In so doing, major global challenges can be addresses, such as biodiversity loss, climate change, waste and pollution. The framework is built upon three principles that are highlighted below in the "butterfly diagram", which is a visual representation for the circular economic concept. It depicts the flow of biological and technical resources through a "value chain" (Ellen MacArthur Foundation [EMF], n.d.a).
The Butterfly Diagram
The left side of the diagram is the biological cycle. It involves renewables, such as food, textiles, and energy as they are taken from natural sources, used, collected, and regenerated through intentional design and efforts. The collection of small inner loops, "Cascades", is working to reuse an item in as many ways as possible before it is regenerated into the natural system (EMF, n.d.a).
The right side of the diagram is the technical cycle. It focuses on keeping products working and useful at all times. The outer loop, recycling, is termed "the loop of last resort", with the smaller inner loops representing processes that have a stronger impact on keeping materials in the system. Remanufacturing, reuse, and sharing are some of these examples (EMF, n.d.a).
The Three Principles of A Circular Economy
Source: IPE Real Assets
Design out waste & pollution
Pictured here is Park 20/20, in the Netherlands. It is the first building constructed using "cradle-to-cradle" principles, where each component of the industrial park is designed with intentional consideration of it's end-of-life prospects (Johannson, 2018). Elements can be replaced as needed, or are leased and maintained by the manufacturing company. Materials are made from compounds that are able to be recovered for repurposing in the future (Zwart, 2018).
Source: Pikrepo
Retain products & materials in use
Carbios is a US-based company that has developed an enzyme capable of breaking down PET plastic (Tournier et al., 2020). They embody the concept of working to reuse a resource that we currently have in abundance in our system. They have constructed a business perspective that recognizes the viable potential of waste as a commodity AND feedstock. The discovery and development of the enzyme has poised them in a uniquely marketable place for the current economic climate.
Source: PxHere
Regenerate natural systems
Pàramo is a high performance clothing company that manufactures its products without the use of PFCs. They have developed a product that uses directionality to move moisture, and allowing them to render their garments free of hazardous chemicals. The fibers can then be regenerated without introducing toxic elements into the environment. Pàramo led the way in signing the 2016 Greenpeace Detox treaty, which aims to remove hazardous and persistent pollutants from textile production. (Pàramo, 2016)
“The Congress hereby declares it to be the national policy of the United States that, wherever feasible, the generation of hazardous waste is to be reduced or eliminated as expeditiously as possible. Waste that is nevertheless generated should be treated, stored, or disposed of so as to minimize the present and future threat to human health and the environment.”
RCRA § 1003 (b) National Policy (US EPA, 2014)
The Circular Economy and Environmental Health
WHO Report: Circular Economy & Health
(click to expand)The World Health Organization conducted a review of the circular economic framework and its potential impact on issues of global health. This review includes seven case studies, three of which are intricately linked with Environmental Health.
E-Waste
Chemicals of Concern
Food Safety
Using the DPSEEA model to assess health impacts of the circular economy, the report provides a detailed "rapid assessment" of specific circular economy activities and how they may positively or negatively impact health. For example, the activity of remanufacturing or refurbishing to design "circular buildings" can directly lead to improvements in air quality and removal of toxic chemicals (WHO, 2018b). Bottom-line conclusions indicate that direct and indirect health benefits will be seen from transitioning toward a circular economy, but negative health impacts could also occur if proper policies and safeguards are not established. These relate specifically to:
Proper monitoring of recycling
Waste-water reuse practices
Job security due to reduced use of primary resources (WHO, 2018b).
Research can and will take place as transition efforts toward a circular economy system continue to emerge and affect change around the world.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (Revisited)
(click to expand)While the EU has been the pioneering government to intentionally incorporate Circular Economy terminology and policies into its legislation, the United States is working to stay in sync with these developments. The RCRA was first enacted in 1976, with the intention to protect people and land from hazardous waste and contaminants. The The RCRA regulation regarding hazardous materials and policies for recycling, repurposing, and reusing are the backbone of a circular economy. In this 2014 document, the RCRA is revisited with notable accomplishments, continuing challenges, and shifts in approaches that define a forward-looking vision.
One of these shifts is in the "conserving resources" sector. In 1976, the focus was on ways of managing waste that were healthy and safe. Now, however, the work of the RCRA program is beginning to examine the entire lifecycle of products in a "sustainable materials management" approach that includes transforming production processes and minimizing materials that are used. There is signifiant work on the road ahead in terms of navigating the regulatory systems that will best serve the country for improved health and economic growth. Important commodities must be identified and supported, while transition towards waste reduction and production shifts are encouraged (US EPA, 2014). The complexity of the path toward a global circular economy is readily seen in the work of the RCRA program, but progressive integration of these principles in US policy is an encouraging glimpse of the future.
Life-Cycle Analysis Case Studies from Circle Economy
(click to expand)In this report, Circle Economy focuses on two products: denim jeans and mobile phones. These case studies model the biological and technical "wings" of the circular economy framework (see the butterfly diagram above). The research that they conduct examines the Material Flow Analysis for these two products, and directly relates to the environmental and socio-economic effects on upstream and downstream value chains.
Denim:
In the case of the jeans, the impact of reducing the use of virgin materials is seen in lower levels of water usage, less pesticide use, and reduced pollution of freshwater from processing chemicals and dyes. Dyes, chemicals, and synthetic materials from clothing in landfills can leach into water sources, increasing the toxicity of dump sites and their effect on those who live and work nearby. Downstream, the efforts to repair, reuse, recycle, and recover reduce the amount of textile waste been shipped abroad and dumped in landfills. Lower and middle income countries are the primary recipients of positive impacts from a circular economy strategy, while the EU (in this example) is a primary driver. Occupational health and safety of workers that are applying pesticides to fields or sandblasting denim will see a reduction in the demand for these tasks. Viewing the production of an item in a systemic light also puts pressure on higher economic countries to implement and support policies that protect workers' health and safety as part of the circular economy (Circle, 2020). For more information, check out MUD Jeans.
Mobile Phones:
The production of mobile phones is complex, but in a few key areas pursuing a more circular system could positively influence environmental health. ASM, artisanal and small-scale mining, impacts the environment through biodiversity loss and ecotoxicity, but a reduction in demand for virgin materials would lead to less pollution of land, air and water. New approaches to phone use and production could also lead to reduced CO2 emissions and removal of toxic risks posed by e-waste (Circle, 2020). The socio-economic impact from an environmental justice perspective is considered below, in the section "Building a Circular Economy for Everyone".
Current Examples Adopting CE Principles
Click on the pictures to see a description of each example.Industrial Symbiosis
Source: Kalundborg Symbiosis.
The Kalundborg Symbiosis, in Denmark, is an example of industrial production utilizing each other's residue in a system that models circular economy principles. This symbiosis was first established in 1972, and demonstrates a shift in mindset about how "waste" is valued and conceptualized (Kalundborg, 2021). Seen in the image, energy, water, and materials flow between the various industries, reducing costs and maximizing the value of these resources.
Resource Recovery Business Innovation
Source: Logo Designer
Brightmark is a private, US-based company with a pledge to operate at fully circular levels, while working to turn plastics and biomass into fuels and new products. The business is driven by a forward-looking vision for a cleaner world that "reimagines waste". Their business concept epitomizes the second principle of a circular economy: retaining materials that are already in use in the system. By offering solutions for turning waste into energy, the company is removing toxic chemicals from the environment, and reducing the emissions that would be generated from traditional waste management practices (Brightmark, 2021).
Recology is one of several private recycling options in Portland that offer a full-spectrum pick-up service. Recology strives to operate as a Waste Zero company, with a mission to "build exceptional resource eco-systems" (Recology, 2017). They are doing research, implementing new technology, and providing communication for the community toward achieving this end. The amazing thing is that Recology traces its roots back 100 years, to 1921, when the business was first formalized.
Local and National Legislation
Source: pixy.org
In December 2020, while no one was looking, Congress passed a ratified version of the 1982 Save Our Seas Act. This new version includes a definition of the Circular Economy, and recognizes the need to model the actions of the law around a systems-focused approach to reducing the amount of waste reaching our oceans (S. 1982, 2020).
Source: Author
Plastic Pollution and Recycling Modernization Act (Oregon)
Without legislation to both guide and enforce circular economic principles, this system will not become widespread. In August of 2021, the State of Oregon introduced a new plan for recycling, centered around the creation of PROs: Producer Responsibility Organizations. Producers pay a membership fee and are incentivized to produce more sustainable goods. The PROs will work with recycling processors to expand recycling services, improve communications, and research waste reduction techniques. The full activity of the Act will be in place by 2025 (Recycling, 2021).
Source: US EPA
On November 15, 2021, the EPA announced this robust new plan for nationwide recycling that builds on the principles of a circular economy. The strategy contains 5 key elements:
improve markets for recycled commodities
improve collection and management infrastructure
reduce contamination in materials stream
enhance policies and programs
standardize measurement for data collection
(US EPA, 2021b).
Building a Circular Economy for Everyone
Source: Rwanda Green Fund. Flickr.
E-Waste in Low & Middle Income Countries
(click to expand)Studies conducted by WHO and the EU have unanimously highlighted an area of caution in their research on the effect of circular economy principles on global health. The waste of electronics and electrical equipment (WEEE), or e-waste, is currently a significant concern because of its disproportionate impact on low and middle income countries (LIMC) and vulnerable populations. Ecotoxicity from burning waste or heavy metal exposure has pronounced effects on the 12.9 million women and 18 million children who live in or near these sites (WHO, 2021). For those who are working directly with WEEE, risk of toxic contamination from leaking battery acid or burning wire insulation is high. It is therefore imperative that policies and programs include tactics for mitigating any negative health impacts that could arise (Wright et al, 2019).
Many LIMCs tend to operate in a more circular economy already (Wright et al, 2019) but also are the predominant workforce behind recycling e-waste products. Circular economic practices could improve environmental conditions by reducing heavy metals and toxic elements introduced by e-waste, but may also prove detrimental to job security by changing distribution patterns (WHO, 2018b). Re-training programs and financing for replacement industries where raw material extraction is a fundamental income are a critical piece of the system to consider (Circle, 2020).
Higher income countries generally render their technology obsolete long before the actual usage capacity is reached. In LMICs, repurposed and reused electronics tend to remain in use until they are beyond repair (Circle, 2020). The WHO recommends that responsibility for enforcing regulations concerning e-waste trade and safety protocols is placed on higher income nations, therefore, as the drivers of consumer demand and rapid product turnover (WHO, 2018b).
Indigenous Knowledge and Voices
(click to expand)Western culture and economic approaches are driven by a linear mindset; consumerism and capitalism see the earth as a commodity and take without effort to replenish resource supplies. In contrast, most Indigenous cultures and ways of life are cyclical, living from the abundance of a season, but reinvesting in the land and ecosystems in order to ensure continued resource supply (Hanna, 2020). This indigenous knowledge is the fundamental knowledge needed for implementing circular economy methods. Bringing native and indigenous voice into the conversation is essential, for they have an inherent understanding of a circular system and culture. They were also the first caretakers for the land, and know how to restore and sustain life through reciprocity (Draxler, 2021).
In Braiding Sweetgrass, Robin Wall Kimmerer circles this idea back to a biomimetic connection with the natural system as she writes about the Maple Nation having a shared currency in carbon:
"It is traded, exchanged, bartered among community members from atmosphere to beetle to woodpecker to fungus to log to firewood to atmosphere and back to tree. No waste, shared wealth, balance, and reciprocity. What better model for a sustainable economy do we need?" (2013)
The culture, mindset, practices, and way of life that is embodied in Indigenous peoples qualifies them to be leaders in this work to heal our world and future outlook (Draxler, 2021). For some, the circular economy is not a recent concept, but an ancient one.
References
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