Embedded Files
Introducing Globalisation
Introducing Globalisation
Globalisation has become an undeniable force shaping our modern world. With the rapid advancements in technology, transportation, and communication, the barriers that once confined nations within their borders have significantly diminished. Today, the interconnectedness of economies, societies, and cultures across the globe has given rise to a complex web of relationships and interactions. Globalisation has opened up new opportunities for trade, investment, and collaboration, but it has also presented challenges and sparked debates about its impact on various aspects of life, including economics, politics, culture, and the environment. Understanding the multifaceted nature of globalisation is essential as we navigate the opportunities and complexities it brings in our increasingly interconnected global community.
Key term: Globalisation
Key term: Globalisation
Globalisation is the process of increasing interconnectedness and integration among countries, economies, and societies worldwide through the exchange of goods, services, information, and ideas across national borders. It involves the breaking down of barriers and the creation of a global network that facilitates the flow of money, technology, and culture on a global scale.
Globalisation is the process of increasing interconnectedness and integration among countries, economies, and societies worldwide through the exchange of goods, services, information, and ideas across national borders. It involves the breaking down of barriers and the creation of a global network that facilitates the flow of money, technology, and culture on a global scale.
LO 7.1: representations of national identity made available to young people
Understanding the Nation State and Nationalism
Understanding the Nation State and Nationalism
A nation-state can be defined as a sovereign (the authority of a state to govern itself) state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common descent.
Key theorist Benedict Anderson provides several criteria's for the elements constructing a nation or nation-state, his simplified definition of a nation is "an imagined political community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign. Furthermore, he writes that a nation-state gives political-expression to the nation, which implies that they are two sides of the same coin, or that a nation-state is a subcategory to nation, meaning that both terms are included under the umbrella term "nation".
Nationalism can be defined as an attitude that the members of a nation have when they care about their national identity. This aspect of nationalism is concerned with conceptualising nation and national identity.
It commonly relates to one another through shared: history, birthplace, ethnicity, and culture.
Nationalism can take on different identities, for example: exclusive nationalism which creates an in-group (e.g. the Irish) and the out-group (e.g. "the foreigners"). Here, nationalists prioritize the in-group and often alienate and scapegoat the out-group. In extreme exclusive nationalism it can led to fascism as seen during WWII. In more recent times, we have seen the rise of exclusive or ultra- nationalism in Poland, Hungary, the UK and the USA.
Inclusive nationalism is the opposite, where it celebrates liberal values of diversity and tolerance. This type of nationalism is experienced in Ireland and the Nordic countries. Inclusive nationalism is located nearer to centre of the political spectrum, whereas exclusive nationalism is further to the right. The key dividing line between them is there attitude towards others.
Understanding National Identity
Understanding National Identity
National identity is very powerful. In the past our identity was associated with the environment that surrounded us such as clans or tribes, the family, and religion.
Today, national identity has both political and cultural elements with a strong emphasis on shared experiences, shared history and a shared border. Within your lifetime it is very unlikely you will ever get to meet all of the 5.1 million people in Ireland, but through national identity we construct a sense of “being the same” with strong values and norms.
Language + Race + Borders = Country ?
The growth of national identity in the modern era can be attributed to several key factors. Firstly, the migration of people to larger cities, leading to urbanization, necessitated the development of a common language for effective communication. Secondly, advancements in technology, such as trains and media, facilitated greater interconnectedness, enabling people to travel more and fostering a shared sense of identity through collective experiences discussed in newspapers and other media outlets. Thirdly, the impact of war or conflicts heightened the perception of "us" versus "them," compelling individuals to align themselves with a particular side and fight for their cause. Lastly, the expansion of governments played a significant role in shaping national identity.
National identity profoundly influences our perception of reality. Notably, major sporting events have the power to unite a country. For instance, the Italia '90 World Cup boosted Ireland's self-esteem and fostered a sense of national pride. Additionally, significant national events like St. Patrick's Day provide an occasion for celebrating and embracing Irish culture, allowing individuals to express and reaffirm their "Irishness."
Our shared values bind us together as we strive for a united past and a collective future. Identity provides us with a profound sense of belonging, a place we can call home, a citizenship that defines us, and a rich tapestry of culture, customs, and traditions that are often exclusive to a particular country or region. These aspects form the foundation from which we derive our values and norms. Describing ourselves as Irish, American, German, Swedish, Ukrainian, Afghan, or any other nationality becomes a means to articulate our identity and highlight who we are.
Nationalism and Patriotism: Do you know the difference?
Nationalism and Patriotism: Do you know the difference?
Patriotism is your conviction that this country is superior to all others because you born in it.
- Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw
Patriotism is when love for your own people comes first; nationalism, when hate for people other than your own comes first.
- Former French President Charles de Gaulle
Nationalism and patriotism are two terms often used interchangeably and which are difficult to define exactly, but since they are used frequently, it is important to be aware of their distinctions.
Nationalism can de defined as powerful ideologies that harness ideals of personal identity, history, race, and language, putting them to work in order to promote, at best, good citizenship and flourishing of a named people group, and, at worst, violent repression and extinction of other people- groups. There are two types of nationalism; civic and ethnic nationalism. Civic nationalists believe in an inclusive form of nationalism that adheres to traditional liberal values of freedom, tolerance, equality, individual rights and has no ethnocentrism and ethnic nationalism. Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity, with emphasis on an ethnocentric (and in some cases an ethnocratic) approach to various political issues related to national affirmation of a particular ethnic group.
Patriotism can be defined as having a devoted love, support, and defence of one's country; national loyalty. Both concepts have been critiqued, depending on your point of view both can be seen as positive or as negative.
In general terms, patriotism generally has a positive connotation. It’s used for various positive sentiments, attitudes, and actions involving loving one’s country and serving the great good of all its people. Whereas nationalism tends to be used more however it generally has a negative connotation. It’s used for political ideologies and movements that a more extreme and exclusionary love of one’s country—at the expense of foreigners, immigrants, and even people in a country who aren’t believed to belong in some way, often racial and religious grounds.
The use of the terms nationalism and patriotism is complex.
Different Perspectives
Different Perspectives
Understanding Irish Identity
Understanding Irish Identity
Keywords:
Immigration: Moving to a new country to live there permanently.
Emigration: Leaving one's home country to live permanently in another country.
Globalisation: The increasing integration and interconnectedness of countries and cultures worldwide.
Intercultural: Involving interactions and exchange between different cultures.
Monolithic: Referring to a large, uniform, and undifferentiated entity or structure.
Monocultural: Characterized by a society or community dominated by a single culture or cultural group.
Racist incidents: Acts or events involving prejudice, discrimination, or hostility based on race.
Discrimination: Unfair treatment or prejudice against individuals or groups based on certain characteristics.
Anti-immigrant: Opposing or showing hostility towards immigrants or immigration policies.
Questions to consider:
How do annual state commemorations influence and shape the national identity of a country?
What are the implications of including diverse voices and experiences in centenary celebrations, such as the 1916 Rising, for the evolution of national identity in Ireland?
How do schools play a role in shaping national identity in Ireland through the transmission of cultural norms, values, and representations of history?
What are the factors and influences behind the promotion of certain values and the rejection of others within the education system and society as a whole?
How does the private ownership of schools, predominantly by the Catholic Church, impact the shaping of national identity in Ireland?
How does state-owned media broadcasting, like RTÉ and TG4, contribute to Irish national identity, especially in the context of a globalized media landscape dominated by international channels and streaming platforms?
Irish identity has experienced a rapid transformation over the past two decades. Significant demographic change has been brought about through both recent immigration and emigration and through economic boom and bust. As with much of the rest of the world, Ireland has also been caught up in the larger context of globalisation, with all the accompanying debates this brings to questions of identity and nation.
Such changes, it would be imagined, undermine any romanticised notions of a ‘fixed’ version of Irish national identity. There are many factors that have led to a 'fixed' Irish identity with a strong focus on being Catholic, White and Gaelic culture. The only other identity considered on the island of Ireland is being unionist and Protestant and this in itself has raised problems and questions.
However, as Ireland grew to become more intercultural, it broadened our understanding of what it means to be Irish. Today, 12% of the population in Ireland identify as being an ethnic or racial minority, according to the CSO this has doubled in the first decade of the 21st century.
Embracing an intercultural Irish society in the late 20th century and early 21st century we can reimagine what it means to be Irish; moving away from the monolithic and monocultural Irish identity constructed during Irish nation-building.
Such rapid change does not go without its problems. During the 1960s attempts to revisit Irish identity as being more diverse (seen by some as attempt to win over Protestants in Northern Ireland) were rejected by some and such attempts were criticised. Since the 1990s onwards we have seen an increase in racist incidents and discrimination against minority groups in Ireland. Political groups with anti-immigrant ideologies are beginning to respond to changes within our country and as we discuss a united Ireland it may require us to once again reimagine our national identity in terms of languages, symbols, national anthem(s) and embracing cultural customs on both sides of the border.
FORMATION OF NATIONAL IDENTITY
1. The Politics of History
Annual state commemorations serve as a highly effective method employed by governments to shape and potentially modify the national identity of a country. National identity is a socially constructed concept based on a collective memory and interpretation of the past shared by all members of a nation. Consequently, governments carefully select which political and historical events to commemorate, and these choices have a significant influence on the traditional Irish national identity.
Since gaining independence, the Irish state has placed greater emphasis on commemorating the 1916 Rising compared to other equally important historical events such as the United Irishmen rebellions in 1798. This focus has resulted in the neglect and downplaying of the role played by Irish Protestants in Ireland's struggle for independence. For instance, in 1798, the United Irishmen were led by Theobald Wolfe Tone, a Church of Ireland Protestant, while the rebellion in Ulster was led by Presbyterians. However, during the early years of independence, Irish governments prioritized commemorating the 1916 Rising. These celebrations particularly highlighted Catholic culture, with an emphasis on the selfless sacrifices made by Catholic leaders.
For example, the government promoted the message of Patrick Pearse's devout Catholicism and his enthusiasm for the Irish language, overshadowing James Connolly's atheism and socialist values. This was part of the government's agenda to foster a distinctively Catholic and Gaelic national identity for the new state. In 1966, on the 50th anniversary of the 1916 Rising, the government organized a two-week celebration that focused on Irish republican values and emphasized the ideals of "blood sacrifice."
In contrast, the 1916 Centenary celebrations took a different approach by incorporating diverse voices and experiences from people across the island of Ireland. The event included stories of Irish individuals who fought in World War I, which had previously been a taboo subject in Ireland. It extended beyond the 1916 Rising and embraced the experiences of women, religious and non-religious individuals, as well as minority groups. This exemplifies how national identity in Ireland is evolving to encompass all traditions present on the island.
2. The Politics of Education
Schools play a multifaceted role in society that extends beyond imparting knowledge and skills. One crucial function of education is the transmission of cultural norms and values, fostering a shared sense of national identity through the teaching of history, culture, beliefs, and values. In Ireland, as in other countries, the government has utilized the educational curriculum as a means to cultivate a sense of national identity and shape our understanding of Irishness.
On March 17th, St. Patrick's Day, hundreds of parades take place across the country, with schools occupying a central position in these celebrations. These moments of celebration reproduce the power of national identity by presenting national values and behaviors as natural, even though they are the product of complex historical, social, political, and cultural factors. The negotiation and promotion of these values within society is a dynamic and intricate process. How does it happen? Why are certain values favored while others are rejected?
Schools play a pivotal role in this process, which is why they hold a central position in parades. They serve as conduits for transmitting culturally specific norms and delineating acceptable and unacceptable forms of behavior.
Since its inception, the Irish State has delegated the responsibility of education to private institutions, with the Catholic Church holding the majority of ownership (more than 90 percent). While the state sets the fundamental curriculum, it is the patrons who determine the moral and values that are instilled in schools.
School textbooks also wield significant influence in shaping national identity. In the 1920s, Irish textbooks focused on cultural nationalism and conservatism, presenting a unified national narrative and promoting an exclusive and privileged national identity. History books emphasized the Irish as "citizens of no mean country," belonging to a race with a noble tradition of heroism and unwavering loyalty to ideals. The construction of a distinct and singular national identity through Gaelicization also played a role.
Irishness within textbooks was closely intertwined with Catholicism and lacked diversity. There was a pronounced national bias, with an emphasis on charity rather than addressing issues directly through social and political activism. The focus was on national symbols, heritage, and culture, with specific attention given to emblems and flags.
Issues of Irish identity were often approached in an uncritical manner. However, contemporary textbooks now strive to be more representative of a diverse Ireland, incorporating perspectives from women, minority groups, members of the LGBTIQ+ community, and ethnic minorities. These textbooks also consider Ireland's place within the European Union and the broader global context.
3. The Politics of Media
In the process of European nation-building, media has played and continues to play a crucial role in shaping the national narrative.
Traditional media outlets, including newspapers, radio, and television, have been instrumental in nation-building and the formation of national identity. These mediums have the power to create, shape, and reflect public opinion during significant moments. In both democratic and non-democratic states, media serves the purpose of educating and informing the public about important national and global events. In the past, newspapers were often controlled by governments and later by private businesses, offering an avenue for constructing shared values, norms, and government perspectives on nationhood, identity, and global affairs. Radio emerged as a platform to give voice to the nation, sharing stories, music, and ideas. Television, although introduced later in Ireland, eventually became a significant medium.
Ireland adopted radio relatively early in 1925 compared to other European countries. However, television arrived later, as both government and religious leaders initially failed to recognize its importance in shaping national identity, considering it costly. The establishment of television channels in Europe preceded Ireland, with France (1931), Germany (1935), the UK (1936), and Italy (1939) taking the lead, while Ireland introduced television in 1961.
State-owned broadcasters such as RTÉ and TG4 provide platforms for both the Irish and Hiberno-English languages, not only on a national level but also globally. In the era of non-Irish television channels widely available in Ireland and the dominance of major global streaming platforms like Netflix, Amazon Prime, Disney+, and HBO Max, public media broadcasting is highly valued in the globalized media landscape. Without it, significant national events such as GAA games, music events, Irish documentaries, films, and other cultural occasions would not have the opportunity to reach international audiences. Furthermore, Irish television and radio content is broadcast on channels across Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, further expanding the representation of Irish national identity.
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE IRISH?
Look at the quote below and consider what Irish write Anne Enright is trying to say about Irish identity. Do you agree or disagree with her, explain your answer.
“I find being Irish quite a wearing thing. It takes so much work because it is a social construction. People think you are going to be this, this and this” - Anne Enright
Benedict Anderson in the Irish Context
Benedict Anderson in the Irish Context
Benedict Anderson wrote a book called "Imagined Communities" about the history of nationalism. In the book, he asks why it's difficult for us to imagine someone who doesn't belong to any country. He explains that a nation is not exactly the same as a tribe, ethnicity, or language group. It includes all of these things.
The title of the book gives us the answer. Nations are communities that have imagined themselves into existence. This means they have created a sense of belonging and made it hard for anyone to think of living outside of their own community. Anderson's ideas can help us understand Ireland's history too.
For example, let's look at the Gaelic Revival and Irish nationalism leading up to 1916. The movement told a powerful story of an ancient people waking up from a long sleep and fighting for self-government, language, culture, and sports. Anderson shows that this idea of a sleeping giant waking up was common in nationalist movements across Europe in the 19th century. It happened in Greece, Finland, Bohemia, Hungary, and Germany too. These giants were not real; they were idealized versions of a pure and distant past used to serve modern political goals. So instead of calling it the Gaelic Revival, we could call it the Gaelic Reinvention.
Language played a crucial role in this nationalist awakening. Reviving and using vernacular languages was important. Anderson argues that the success of these movements in Europe was greatly influenced by the existence of newspapers, pamphlets, and advertisements in the local languages. He calls this "print-capitalism." In the case of the Irish language revival, it didn't succeed as much because there weren't enough printed materials in Irish during the 18th century to create a commercial culture around it.
Case study: Traveller Identity
Case study: Traveller Identity
DATA & EVIDENCE:
Irish Travellers suffer some of the worst discrimination and poverty of any ethnic group in Europe, according to European Union research.
Members of the community have said it is causing a mental health crisis in their home country.
In 2021, an Irish parliamentary committee reported that 11% of Travellers in Ireland die by suicide.
Source:
Travellers, also known as Irish Travellers or Pavee, are an ethnic minority group in Ireland. They possess a unique cultural identity and have been officially recognized as an indigenous ethnic minority by the Irish government since 2017. The estimated population of Travellers, according to the Irish Traveller Movement (ITM), is approximately 31,000 individuals, accounting for around 0.7% of the total Irish population.
Travellers have a complex and longstanding history, which dates back centuries and has endured throughout the process of Irish nation-building. Despite their significant cultural contributions, Traveller culture has often been overlooked and marginalized within the national narrative.
Rooted in a nomadic heritage, Travellers traditionally lived in caravans and moved from place to place in search of seasonal work or trade. They have their own language, known as Shelta or Cant, which is a blend of English, Gaelic, and influences from Romani and other languages. The Traveller community values its strong oral tradition, with storytelling, music, and traditional crafts playing integral roles in their cultural practices.
Travellers encounter numerous challenges and inequalities within Irish society. They face higher levels of poverty, lower educational attainment, and limited access to healthcare and housing compared to the settled population. Discrimination and prejudice against Travellers persist, resulting in social exclusion and restricted opportunities for social and economic advancement. Research conducted by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) in 2020 revealed that 68% of Traveller men and 62% of Traveller women reported experiencing discrimination.
Efforts have been made to address these disparities and promote Traveller rights. The Irish government has implemented policies and legislation aimed at combating discrimination and fostering social inclusion. The recognition of Travellers as an ethnic minority marks a significant step forward in safeguarding their rights and promoting their cultural heritage. However, the effective implementation of policies and the achievement of equality for Travellers remain ongoing challenges.
Traveller identity constitutes a crucial component of Irish multiculturalism and diversity. It enriches the social fabric of Ireland and contributes to the nation's cultural heritage. Recognizing and respecting Traveller identity is essential for nurturing an inclusive society that treats all individuals with dignity and equality.
Case study: Understanding 'Northern Irish' identity
Case study: Understanding 'Northern Irish' identity
DATE & EVDIENCE:
In Census 2021, 42.8% living in Northern Ireland identified solely or along with other national identities as ‘British’. This is down 48.4% in 2011. 33.3% identified solely or along with other national identities as ‘Irish’. This is up (28.4%) in 2011. 31.5% identified as ‘Northern Irish’. 29.4% in 2011.
Source: NISRA
Research undertaken at Queen's University Belfast by John Garry and Kevin McNicholl suggests that Northern Irish identity is a complex and evolving concept, influenced by various factors such as religion, age, socioeconomic status, and intergroup contact. It is perceived as an inclusive identity that can bridge the divide between the Irish and British identities, but its meaning and interpretation can vary among individuals. Their research shows:
Northern Irish identity is perceived as inclusive and has been associated with tolerance and integrated education.
The choice of identifying as Northern Irish varies across religious groups, with Protestants and Catholics both expressing this identity.
Over time, there has been an increase in the popularity of the Northern Irish identity among Protestants, while Catholics have maintained a consistent level of support.
Age is a predictor of Northern Irish identification, with younger Protestants more likely to choose this identity.
There is a correlation between wealth and Northern Irish identification, with Northern Irish identifiers more likely to be employed and own their accommodation.
The meaning of the Northern Irish identity is debated, with some seeing it as a cross-community identity and others as a manifestation of the Irish or British identities.
Political attitudes and voting choices differ between British and Northern Irish Protestants, as well as between Irish and Northern Irish Catholics.
Northern Irish identifiers tend to have more accepting attitudes towards people of different religions and show greater tolerance for mixing and cultural diversity.
Positive intergroup contact, such as having friends from different religious backgrounds, is associated with Northern Irish identification.
Case study: a shared and united 'Irish' identity
Case study: a shared and united 'Irish' identity
A shared identity in a united Ireland, does not go without its complexities. The idea of merging two or more distinct communities, each with their own historical, cultural, and political narratives, presents a myriad of challenges that require careful consideration and delicate navigation.
The Irish Times, in December 2022, published findings from a focus group examining the potential outcomes of a successful referendum on a united Ireland. The key findings were as follows: (1) Concerns regarding identity loss emerged as a significant issue for certain unionists, making it challenging for them to accept a pro-unity referendum outcome. (3) Participants expressed concerns about the possibility of instability, conflict, civil unrest, and even a resurgence of violence if unification occurred against the wishes of many British-identifying individuals in Northern Ireland. (4) It was acknowledged that failure to implement referendum commitments made to people in the North after Irish reunification could result in problems and generate feelings of resentment.
There has been discussion among political analysts and politicians in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland regarding the potential need for revisions to the Irish flag, the Irish national anthem, and other symbols of Irishness in a united Ireland. However, a December 2022 Ipsos poll indicated that nearly half of all voters stated that any alterations to the anthem and flag would decrease their likelihood of voting in favour of a united Ireland in a referendum in the Republic.
Case study: Black and Irish identity
Case study: Black and Irish identity
Identity: Details to follow
Source: INAR report 2021
According to the 2016 Census, 10,100 individuals with dual Irish nationality identified themselves as 'Black or Black Irish - African', with Irish-Nigerian nationals comprising the largest subgroup of 6,683 persons. Living in Ireland, young black individuals face significant challenges that impact their daily lives, including racism-infused micro-aggressions and stereotypes that detrimentally affect their overall experiences.
Unfortunately, the positive contributions of black communities to Irish society often remain unrecognized within the national narrative of Irish identity. Furthermore, the increase in racist incidents in recent years overshadows these contributions, and the most discriminated against group in 2021 was the Black-African, Black-Irish, and Black-other communities (INAR, 2022).
As young Black Irish individuals navigate their identities, which may encompass being Black Irish or having a hybrid identity that embraces their Nigerian, Zimbabwean, Jamican, Zambian, or Kenyan heritage, their sense of Irishness is constantly questioned and challenged. Emma Dabiri, an Irish-Nigerian author and lecturer, highlights the association of Irishness primarily with whiteness, "disregarding brown girls' Irishness even if they can trace their Irish ancestry back to the 10th century".
The exclusion of black identity and culture from the Irish narrative is problematic as it perpetuates exclusion and marginalisation, reinforcing the notion that being Irish is solely connected with whiteness. This exclusion overlooks the diverse experiences, histories, and contributions of black individuals within Irish society, undermining the principles of equality, diversity, and inclusivity necessary for a flourishing and cohesive society. Recognising and embracing the richness of black identity and culture is essential for the Irish narrative to become more representative, inclusive, and reflective of the true diversity of its population.
In terms of popular culture, the rise of a music scene influenced by hip-hop, R&B, and drill music with a distinct Irish twist serves as a notable marker of how Black Irish culture is making its way into the mainstream. Artists like Denise Chalia from Limerick and Rejjie Snow from Dublin contribute to this growing movement. Representation of Black Irish culture within mainstream media and political institutions is still in its infancy, with much progress yet to be made.
Resources
Case study: Being Muslim and Irish
Case study: Being Muslim and Irish
Identity: Details to follow
Source: ?
Ireland, known for its rich cultural heritage and warm hospitality, has become home to a growing Muslim community in recent years. According to the 2016 cenus there are over 63,443 (1.26% of total population) living in Ireland, the experiences of Muslims in Ireland are diverse, reflecting the complexities of multiculturalism and the challenges faced by minority communities.
One of the defining aspects of being Muslim in Ireland is the sense of community. Muslims in Ireland have established mosques, Islamic centers, and cultural organisations that serve as focal points for community engagement and spiritual growth. These spaces provide opportunities for Muslims to come together, connect with fellow believers, and preserve their religious and cultural heritage. Friday prayers, Islamic festivals, and community events serve as occasions for strengthening bonds and celebrating diversity.
Irish society has increasingly recognized the importance of accommodating the needs of its Muslim population. Halal food options are now more readily available in restaurants, supermarkets, and educational institutions, catering to the dietary requirements of Muslims. Additionally, workplaces and schools have made efforts to accommodate religious practices, such as providing prayer rooms or allowing time for daily prayers. This growing understanding and accommodation reflect the evolving dynamics of multiculturalism in Ireland.
Muslims in Ireland, like in many other countries, have faced instances of prejudice, discrimination, and misunderstanding. Islamophobia, although not pervasive, does exist and can create barriers to full integration and acceptance. Muslims may encounter stereotypes, misconceptions, or biases that can negatively impact their experiences and interactions within society. It is crucial to address and challenge these prejudices through education, dialogue, and promoting interfaith understanding.
Additionally, Irish Muslims may also grapple with issues related to cultural identity. Balancing religious observance with Irish customs and traditions can sometimes be a complex task. Muslims in Ireland often find themselves navigating between their Islamic practices and the desire to integrate fully into Irish society. This delicate balance requires openness, understanding, and dialogue between different communities, fostering an environment of mutual respect and acceptance.
Resources
News Article: Irish Muslims Push to find a new place in society
News Articles: Growing Up Muslim in Ireland
News Article: Islam is Ireland's third largest religion
Case study: LGBTQ+ identity in Ireland
Case study: LGBTQ+ identity in Ireland
Identity: Details to follow
Source: ?
The LGBTQ+ identity has historically faced marginalisation, erasure, or revision within national histories and the process of nation-building. This holds true for various minority groups. In the context of Ireland, discrimination based on sexual orientation is now illegal. However, it is important to note that progress has been relatively recent.
The decriminalization of homosexuality in the Republic of Ireland occurred in 1993, which was later compared to many other Western European countries. This late milestone marked a significant step forward in recognizing the rights and dignity of LGBTQ+ individuals. Subsequently, in 2015, Ireland made history by holding a referendum to extend marriage rights to all couples, regardless of their gender. This landmark event further highlighted the inclusion of LGBTQ+ stories and recognised the importance of diverse relationships in shaping the national narrative.
The inclusion of LGBTQ+ experiences and key figures in the national narrative contributes to a more diverse and inclusive understanding of Irishness. It reflects the acknowledgement that LGBTQ+ individuals are integral to the fabric of Irish society and have played significant roles in shaping the nation's history, culture, and progress. By incorporating LGBTQ+ stories, struggles, and achievements into the national narrative, Ireland takes steps toward fostering a more inclusive and accepting society.
These cultural and political developments have not only brought about legal changes but have also had a profound impact on societal attitudes and perceptions. They have created space for LGBTQ+ voices to be heard, validated, and celebrated. The recognition of LGBTQ+ rights and the inclusion of LGBTQ+ stories in the national narrative promote a more accurate representation of Ireland's diversity and contribute to a sense of belonging for LGBTQ+ individuals and communities.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge that progress is ongoing, and challenges persist. Discrimination, prejudice, and inequalities still exist for LGBTQ+ individuals in various aspects of life, including employment, healthcare, and social acceptance.
Resources
Case study: Clashing Identities: Geopolitical Events, Globalisation, and the Rise of Ultra-Nationalism in Europe
Case study: Clashing Identities: Geopolitical Events, Globalisation, and the Rise of Ultra-Nationalism in Europe
In recent years, progressive nations such as Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Ireland have witnessed a surge in anti-immigrant sentiment. This trend can be attributed to various geopolitical events, including climate-induced migration and conflicts in the Middle East, Ukraine, and North Africa, which have prompted migrants to seek refuge and better opportunities in Europe. While Europe grapples with the challenges posed by this movement of people, ultra-nationalist and far-right groups have exacerbated tensions and divisions within societies. These phenomena are intertwined with the forces of globalisation, which entail increased interconnectedness and the rapid dissemination of information. While globalisation has brought positive outcomes like economic growth, cultural exchange, and technological advancements, it has also provided fertile ground for the emergence of far-right thinking and anti-immigrant sentiments.
The global political landscape has also witnessed a rise in authoritarian forms of government in countries such as Hungary, Poland, and Russia, creating a clash between traditional notions of identity and more cosmopolitan sentiments. Global crises, including conflicts, the rise of nationalist movements, economic downturns, and the COVID-19 pandemic, have further shaken the world, leading some to scapegoat certain individuals and communities. The widespread adoption of digital media as the primary source of information, along with the utilization of messaging apps during the pandemic to spread disinformation, has given rise to a concerning trend. These platforms are increasingly used to disseminate "news and information" outside the realm of mainstream media, lacking authentication and regulation, which increases the risk of spreading fake and harmful content. Messaging apps and traditional social media platforms have significantly amplified the influence and reach of far-right movements. Online spaces provide platforms for like-minded individuals to connect, organize, and promote their ideas, shielded by anonymity. This accelerated dissemination of extremist views, conspiracy theories, and anti-immigrant rhetoric has resulted in the formation of virtual communities that fuel radicalisation and foster divisive ideologies.
As a consequence of these trends, countries with more progressive political and social systems have witnessed the rise of attacks and protests targeting migrant groups, ethnic minorities, and LGBTQ+ individuals. For instance, in 2017, Rinkeby, a culturally diverse borough outside Stockholm in Sweden, experienced riots as nationalist groups denounced Sweden's migration policies. Increased crime was attributed to multiculturalism, leading to riots where parts of the borough were set on fire, public and private property were damaged, and clashes with the police ensued. These riots gained international attention, sparking debates on social integration, inequality, and the relationship between law enforcement and marginalised communities.
Similarly, in 2018, the city of Chemnitz in Germany saw a series of protests characterized by anti-immigration sentiments. The events were triggered by the fatal stabbing of a local German man, allegedly by two immigrants, which fueled public outrage and tensions within the community. Hundreds of anti-immigration protesters took to the streets, expressing discontent with the perceived impact of immigration on their city and society. Far-right groups, including Pegida and the Alternative for Germany (AfD) political party, participated in these demonstrations. The events in Chemnitz sparked a national and international debate on immigration, nationalism, and the rise of far-right sentiments in Germany, revealing deep divisions within society.
In 2023, parts of Dublin and other Irish towns and cities have also experienced the emergence of protests led by ultra-conservative and nationalist groups. Although these protests are currently small in scale, their potential to grow in numbers is amplified by the utilisation of social media and messaging apps to disseminate disinformation. Factors such as an increase in global conflicts, a housing crisis, and an anti-establishment movement have contributed to the anti-immigrant sentiment in Ireland.
Course links: Globalisation, Human Rights, Media, Types of Government, Civil Disobedience
Linking key theorists:
Eriksen has analyzed the rise of far-right movements in Europe and their relationship to globalization and multiculturalism. He argues that far-right ideologies often exploit anxieties and insecurities arising from globalisation, portraying multiculturalism as a threat to national identity and social cohesion. Eriksen contends that far-right movements draw on populist rhetoric, nationalist sentiments, and anti-immigrant stances to mobilise support. He emphasizes the importance of understanding the social and cultural factors that contribute to the appeal of these movements, including economic inequality, cultural insecurity, and a sense of loss of control.
Resources
Challenges with racism and global migration
Challenges with racism and global migration
According to the "Reports of Racism in Ireland 2022" by the Irish Network Against Racism (INAR):
The report shows that reports of racism in Ireland continue to rise, with 1,879 incidents reported in 2021, a 16% increase from the previous year.
The most common types of racism reported were verbal abuse, harassment, and online abuse, with Black people and people from Muslim backgrounds being the most targeted groups.
The report highlights the impact of COVID-19 on racism in Ireland, with increased reports of racism towards people perceived as being from Asia and racist language being used in relation to the pandemic.
The report also notes the impact of racism on mental health, with many victims of racism reporting anxiety, stress, and depression as a result of their experiences.
The report calls for a range of actions to address racism in Ireland, including improved reporting mechanisms, better training for public officials, and greater support for victims of racism.
The report also highlights the need for a comprehensive national anti-racism strategy and increased resources for anti-racism work in Ireland.
Some ideas:
The issue of immigration and the treatment of refugees is a topic that has been hotly debated in recent years.
In 2018, there was an incident in Wicklow where 200 residents opposed the transformation of the Grand Hotel into a Direct Provision centre aimed at housing 100 refugees.
As Ireland become economically wealthy (during the ‘Celtic Tiger’ period) it required migrant workers to fill gaps in the jobs market. As a result, many migrant workers moved to Ireland for better job opportunities and a better life style. This produced a more diverse and multicultural Ireland.
Further to global events such as the climate change, conflict and war, forced migration and the War in Ukraine we see people move into Southern and Western Europe. As a consequence populist groups and political parties are exploiting the issue.
Populism is a political ideology that claims to represent the interests and values of ordinary people against those of the elite or establishment. Populist leaders often present themselves as the voice of the people and seek to gain support by appealing to popular sentiment, often using simple language and slogans. Populism can be found on both the left and right of the political spectrum, and it can sometimes be associated with nationalism or authoritarianism. As a response to globalisation, cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism, far-right populists exploit tensions in communities and nationally. In recent years, we have seen this in Ireland, Sweden and Germany, countries which previously embraced diversity.
Globally, over half of the refugee population are under the age of 18 years.
Before a person is granted official refugee status – the right to stay in their host country – they are considered an asylum seeker. In Ireland, asylum seekers waiting for their application to be processed by the government are placed in a system and accommodation known as direct
provision.
Direct provision is the system in Ireland that accommodates asylum seekers as they wait for their request for refugee status to be processed. In direct provision, asylum seekers are provided with state-run accommodation and a small allowance. They can seek limited employment but cannot choose where to live, or leave the direct provision system while their application is in process.
Those in direct provision receive a weekly of 38.80 per adult and 29.80 per child.
In June 2018, the Government of Ireland granted limited employment rights for asylum seekers, however in 2021 the European Commission reported there are significant barriers to asylum
1,142 between 1 and seekers gaining employment. Therefore the number of asylum seekers in part-time or full employment is very low.
According to the Department of Justice, the number of asylum seekers was The total for 2022 was 13,319 people but with more than 70,000 refugees already in the country – the majority from Ukraine – the situation has reportedly become critical in recent months.
Key theorists:
Benedict Anderson is best known for his theory of nationalism. He argued that nations are "imagined communities" that are created through shared beliefs, symbols, and rituals. Anderson's theory can be applied to the issue of racism in several ways. Firstly, the opposition to the Direct Provision centres in local communities could be seen as a result of a belief in a particular national identity. The residents may feel that their national identity is threatened by the arrival of refugees, leading them to resist the construction of direct provision centres or the use of hotels to accommodate asylum applicants. This opposition could be seen as an attempt to protect the imagined community of your local town or nationally. Secondly, Anderson's theory highlights the importance of symbols in creating a sense of national identity. The movement of people in a local community could be perceived as a threat too often conservative media and far-right groups associate asylum applicants and migrants groups with poverty and increased crime. In the case of the a local community centre or hotel being changed over to accommodate asylum applicants, it could be argued that these symbols are being taken away or being broken down by the “outsiders” impact local identity. The transformation of the community amenities into a Direct Provision centre could be seen as a threat to this symbol, further fuelling the opposition from residents.
On the other hand, Thomas Hylland Eriksen is known for his work on multiculturalism and globalisation. He argues that these forces are transforming societies and creating new forms of identity. Eriksen's theory can be applied to the issue of refugees in Wicklow in several ways. Firstly, the opposition to the Direct Provision center could be seen as a resistance to multiculturalism. The arrival of refugees challenges the existing identity of a community, which may lead some residents to oppose their presence. Secondly, Eriksen's theory highlights the importance of recognizing the diversity within societies. The refugees and asylum seekers arriving into towns and cities come from different cultures and backgrounds, and their presence could enrich the community by bringing in new perspectives and experiences. By opposing the Direct Provision centres, residents may be denying themselves the opportunity to learn from and engage with people from different cultures.
LO 7.2: diversity and cultural change
LO 7.3: diversity in the European Union
Key term: Sovereign
Key term: Sovereign
A term used to describe a nation or state that possesses independent authority and governs itself without external interference.
Key term: Euroscepticism
A political stance characterized by skepticism or opposition towards the European Union (EU), its policies, and the process of European integration.
Key term: Ultra-nationalism
Key term: Ultra-nationalism
An extreme form of nationalism characterized by an intense and often aggressive loyalty and devotion to one's own nation, often accompanied by intolerance or hostility towards other nations or ethnic groups.
Key term: Pan-nationalism
Key term: Pan-nationalism
A political ideology or movement that seeks to unify people from different nations or ethnicities based on a common cultural, linguistic, or historical heritage, often transcending national boundaries.
Is the EU an Imagined Community?
Is the EU an Imagined Community?
After World War II, several European countries united, and formed what eventually became the EU as we know it today, consisting of 27 sovereign nation-states. Its main purpose was to promote peace and solidarity between its members, promoted through a common EU-identity, based on shared values. In this project, it is argued how the EU agenda share certain elements with Benedict Anderson's theory on "Imagined Communities", concerning the social construction of nationalism, nations and national identity, but in the case of the EU, these ideas are being constructed on a supranational level.
A Eurobarometer report published in 2021 indicates 56% of citizens from across the EU who were surveyed identified as being 'European'.
Some variations can be found among different EU Member States. Countries such as Hungary (76%) and Malta (72%) identied as being 'European', whereas countries such as France (40%) Belgium (46%), Netherlands (48%) and Finland (49%) least identified with being European.
Creating and maintaining a collective European identity is complex, especially in recent years where we have seen a rise in Euroscepticism and ultra-nationalism and as the research indicates more EU citizens view their national identity as more important than their European identity. Others critique how the EU as a supranational nation, with a supra-national agenda, does not connect with its EU-citizens and decision-making which takes place in Brussels does not always address local needs.
It can be argued the EU itself does not fit into the traditional constructions of a nation-state, however it does fit the criteria of a supranational nation therefore qualifying as a modern state. It can be argued that EU citizens share a common European ethnicity and history (since WWII), which can be expressed as a type of EU pan-nationalism, which is a key component to the imagined community - shared experiences.
Collectively the EU promotes core values and norms of freedom, democracy, human rights and equality. Further, the EU could be ahead of itself - in time nation-states could become irrelevant and be replaced with larger blocks of countries. fostering a more integrated and interconnected regional or global community.
Across the EU, an average of 73% respondents said they identified with their nationality. Substantial variations can be found among respondents of different EU Member States. More than eight in ten respondents in Portugal (93%), Hungary (87%), Slovakia (85%), Spain (84%), and Cyprus and Bulgaria (both 83%) say they identify with their nationality. Less than six in ten respondents in Luxembourg (47%), Belgium (52%) and Sweden (59%), say they identify with their nationality.
Europe will not be made all at once, or according to a single plan. It will be built through concrete achievements which first create a de facto solidarity - Robert Schuman Former President of the European Parliament & Prime Minister of LuxembourgRRbert Schuman Luxembourg Prime Minister and former President of the Euro
What does the research say?
The socio-demographic analysis shows that gender, life satisfaction, political affiliation has little influence on the likelihood of people identifying with being European. It does however show the following:
Younger people are slightly less likely to identify with being European: 54% of those aged 15-24 identify with being European compared to 59% of respondents aged 55 and over.
People who have enjoyed an education until or beyond the age of 20, and those left school between the age of 16 or 19 are slightly more likely (59% and 58% respectively) to identify with being European and those who left at 15 or younger (52%).
People who never or almost never have trouble paying bills are much more likely (60%) to identify with being European than those who have trouble paying bills most of the time (43%).
People in rural villages are slightly less likely (55%) to identify with being European than
those living in big cities (60%).
Respondents who indicate being satisfied with their lives are much more likely (60%) to agree with the proposed statement than those who don’t (47%).
Logically, respondents who agree that their voice counts in the EU are more likely (66%) to identify with being European than those who don’t agree (51%).
Source: European Commission, (2021) 'Values and Identities of EU' - Special Eurobarometer 508
Diversity within the European Union
Diversity within the European Union
The European Union is home to some 447.7 million inhabitants across 27 different countries. As a result the EU exhibits huge levels of diversity. In terms of languages there are 24 official languages and more than 60 regional or minority languages, their number of speakers is estimated at 40 million citizens.
Among the large stateless languages are Catalan and Occitan with each around 6 million speakers. These languages have more speakers than for example Finnish (5 million), Danish (5 million), and Croatian (4,5 million), which are all state languages. But also Basque, West Frisian and Breton lie above the critical number of speakers. The critical threshold for the survival of a language is estimated at 300, 000 speakers. This means that about 80% of the European minority languages are endangered. Therefore it is necessary to protect and to promote the European minorities.
In terms of religion, the EU is expected to have fewer Christians and more Muslims and other religious minorities in the coming years. But while these changes will be significant, they will not radically alter the continent’s religious composition. Largely due to low fertility rates across the continent, Europe is the only region of the world where the overall population is projected to decline in total number (by almost 50 million) between 2010 and 2050.
The number of Christians in Europe is forecast to drop by about 100 million, from about 553 million to 454 million, and an increasingly small share of the world’s Christians will live in Europe. Still, in 2050, almost two-thirds of all Europeans (65%) are expected to identify as Christian (this does not imply that most will be regular churchgoers). By contrast, roughly three- quarters of Europeans identified as Christian in 2010.
Christian declines in Europe are expected in part because Christians on the continent are older than other groups, with a median age of 42 as of 2010. By contrast, Muslims have a median age of 32. The projections for Christians also factor in religious switching, the largest consequence of which is net movement of people leaving Christianity and joining the ranks of the religiously unaffiliated. The share of people who do not identify with a religious group is expected to grow from 19% of Europe’s population in 2010 to 23% by 2050.
The Muslim population will grow, from about 43 million in 2010 to 71 million by 2050, according to the projections. But despite the concerns of some Europeans, Muslims are forecast to increase only modestly as a share of Europe’s population, from 6% in 2010 to 10% in 2050.
Muslims are expected to grow in Europe because they have a younger population and a higher fertility rate (2.1 children per woman) than any other major religious group. Furthermore, ongoing immigration from the Middle East, Africa and Asia is expected to stoke growth.
The populations of other, smaller religious minorities also will increase, although in each case from a much smaller base than Europe’s Muslims. For instance, Buddhists and Hindus are expected to double as a share of Europe’s population – in both cases rising from 0.2% to 0.4%.
The population of those in Europe who identify as Jewish by religion is projected to continue a long decline in the coming decades, falling from 1.4 million in 2010 to 1.2 million by 2050, remaining about 0.2% of all Europeans. Moreover, Jews will no longer be Europe’s second-largest religious minority after Muslims. By the middle of the century, there will be roughly twice as many Hindus (2.7 million) and Buddhists (2.5 million) as there are Jews in Europe.
LO 7.4: understanding diversity
Although Ireland has historically been depicted as white, Catholic, and Gaelic (monoculture), the reality is that the island has always been diverse due to the arrival of various groups throughout its history. From the earliest settlers to the Celts and Vikings, and even to more recent migrants from North Africa, Southern and Central Europe, and Britain, Ireland has welcomed a range of different cultures and individuals. However, during the process of nation-building, there was a strong emphasis on creating a unified Irish identity and establishing an in-group.
Nevertheless, global events such as conflicts, wars, the adoption of capitalist and globalized systems, and Ireland's membership in the European Union have all played a role in shaping Irish identity and making it more diverse. As a result, Ireland has become increasingly cosmopolitan and multicultural in recent decades, experiencing a significant shift from what it was just 20 years ago.
LO 7.5: understanding interaction between western and non-western culture
The interaction between Western and non-Western cultures is a fascinating exchange that occurs between diverse groups of people from around the world. It involves a mixture of interactions, exchanges, and influences. Western culture, represented by countries such as the United States and Europe, and non-Western cultures, which encompass regions like Africa, Asia, and South America, come together and impact each other in various ways. It's similar to when individuals from different backgrounds meet, share their unique ideas, traditions, and beliefs, and learn from one another. This interaction takes place through avenues such as music, food, fashion, movies, and even technology. By understanding and appreciating this interaction, we can embrace the beauty of diversity, gain knowledge from each other, and work towards creating a more inclusive and harmonious global community.
Representation of Arab & Islamic culture in popular culture
Representation of Arab & Islamic culture in popular culture
What do we mean by ‘representation’?
What do we mean by ‘representation’?
the description or portrayal of someone or something in a particular way.
some individuals or groups feel they are underrepresented or misrepresented in popular culture.
examples include wome, people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, LGBTQI+, black culture etc.
Key ideas:
Key ideas:
Popular culture, including films, TV shows, social media, music, and video games, plays a crucial role in shaping our perceptions of different individuals and groups in society.
For instance, video games have become a prominent form of mainstream media that influences how we see the world. When it comes to representing Arab-Muslim culture within these games, they often reflect the images we encounter in news and popular media.
Unfortunately, 'Western' media, primarily originating from Europe and North America, frequently resort to negative stereotypes and clichés of Arab-Muslim culture.
Instead of acknowledging the rich diversity of the Arab-Muslim world, which comprises 22 different countries with various religions, ethnic groups, languages, and a profound history, Western media tends to present simplified and one-dimensional portrayals. The impact of real-world events like the September 11th attacks in 2001 and recent bombings in cities like Paris and Manchester further highlight existing tensions between Western culture and Arab culture.
Research findings indicate that European and American media tend to view Arab-Muslim culture as something foreign or "other." This perspective is manifested in various ways:
Arab-Muslim culture is often portrayed as a threat to Western values.
There is a tendency to associate Islam with terrorism.
The representation of everyday Muslims is frequently marginalized.
The Western and Arab relationship is dominated by conflicts.
Positive aspects of Arab-Muslim culture receive little focus.
Arab-Muslim culture is often depicted as underdeveloped, with a focus on desert landscapes.
These portrayals reinforce a sense of 'Us' (Westerners) versus 'them' (Arabs).
One notable key theorist Edward Said, introduced the concept of Orientalism, which is rooted in the colonial era of the 19th and 20th centuries. This framework contributed to the formation of an 'Us and Them' dynamic. The West (Europe and America) perceives itself as superior, holding specific values, and identifies as 'Us.' In contrast, 'Them' or the 'other' (referring to Arab-Muslim culture) is seen as different and often faces marginalization or underrepresentation within society. Unfortunately, this representation of 'Us' and 'Them' perpetuates conflicts and reinforces harmful imagery and stereotypes.
Key Concept: Orientalism
Key Concept: Orientalism
Orientalism is a way of looking at and talking about the East, like the Middle East and North Africa, from a Western perspective. It often creates stereotypes and makes the region seem exotic. It started in the 1800s and has influenced things like books, art, and academic studies, shaping how people see the relationship between the East and the West.
Orientalism is a way of looking at and talking about the East, like the Middle East and North Africa, from a Western perspective. It often creates stereotypes and makes the region seem exotic. It started in the 1800s and has influenced things like books, art, and academic studies, shaping how people see the relationship between the East and the West.
Resources
Video Discussion:
What is the role of women portrayed in this advertisement?
How is the Middle-East represented in this context?
What is the influence of Western brands in this scenario?
What are some arguments presented by Sylvia Walby and Noam Chomsky regarding power relations?
Report:
Orientalism has played a significant role in shaping the stereotypes about the Muslim community that we often see on the big and small screens throughout the last century.
Is there a significant distinction between Arab-Muslim culture and 'Western' culture?
Is there a significant distinction between Arab-Muslim culture and 'Western' culture?
Zainab Salbi is an Iraqi-American humanitarian, author, and activist. She is best known for her work in women's rights and humanitarian causes. In 1993, Salbi founded Women for Women International, a nonprofit organization that provides support and resources to women survivors of war and conflict. Commenting on the Arab-Muslim culture and Western culture she has made the following observations.
Often, public perception of people in the Middle East is that they hate America and the West.
It is true that that some people in the Middle East harbour feelings of disdain and mistrust of the Western world. But such sentiments are not straightforward feelings of hatred. Rather, they reflect a dynamic of love-hate, or love-resentment-anger.
Most Muslims in the Middle East and North Africa admire and aspire to the essence of Western life: freedom of opportunity, freedom of expression and creativity, and the diversity of options available in life.
Hollywood plays a major role in promoting this life, in which people have decent homes and jobs, cars and nice clothes. Daily, these aspirations are reflected not only in people’s love of Western popular movies and TV series, but also through the latest fashion that everyone seeks to obtain and replicate, the latest style of haircuts, an obsession with celebrities and what they are doing or saying. Music, too, is a key cultural influence, and what you hear in most restaurants in the region is Western music, mostly from the ’80s.
But such aspiration is followed by the crushing realization that the Western standard of success is out of reach for many of the societies in the MENA (Middle East North Africa) region.
According to Salbi some Arabs view Western culture as:
According to Salbi some Arabs view Western culture as:
Other perspectives on the relationship between Western culture and Arab culture…
Other perspectives on the relationship between Western culture and Arab culture…
Perspective 1:
Islam is incompatible with democracy was false from the beginning, because it served imperial ambitions of the West and violated Muslims’ self-perception that, not only is Islam compatible with democracy, but it was also one of the engines of democratic empowerment.
Perspective 2:
West’s agenda of democratisation of the Middle East is dubious because it hides how the West actually de-democratised the Middle East.
Contention is that, from the 1940s onwards, democratic experiments were well in place and the West subverted them to advance its own interests.
Examples of de-democratisation: The reportedly CIA-engineered coup against the elected government of Syria in 1949, the coup orchestrated by the US and UK against the democratic Iran in 1953 and subversion of Bahrain’s democracy in the 1970s.
the West’s recent de-democratisation in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Perspective 3:
The Middle East was de-democratised because the West rarely saw it as a collection of people with dynamic, rich social-cultural textures.
The Western power elites viewed the Middle East as no more than a region of multiple resources and strategic interests; hence their aim was to keep it “stable” and “manageable”.
To Ernest Bevin, foreign secretary (1945-51) of imperial Britain, without “its oil and other potential resources” there was “no hope of our being able to achieve the standard of life at which we [are] aiming in Great Britain”.
Case study: The Fall of Kabul
Case study: The Fall of Kabul
Human Rights: Since the takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban in August 2021, women have been wholly excluded from public office and the judiciary.
Today, Afghanistan's women and girls are required to adhere to a strict dress code and are not permitted to travel more than 75 km without a mahram. They are compelled to stay at home.
Source: OHCHR
In 2021, the Western countries, particularly the US and the UK, faced a significant and tumultuous event as they withdrew their forces and abandoned Afghanistan. The withdrawal came after a 20-year military intervention that began in response to the 9/11 attacks in 2001. The fall of Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, marked a turning point in this process. As the Western forces started to withdraw, the Taliban, an insurgent group, rapidly gained control over various provinces, leading to a swift and unexpected collapse of the Afghan government and security forces. The Taliban's advances intensified, and they eventually captured Kabul, which resulted in widespread chaos and panic among the Afghan population.
During the evacuation process, Western nations faced considerable challenges. The scenes at the Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul were chaotic, with desperate Afghans trying to flee the country. The evacuation efforts were marked by security threats, logistical difficulties, and a race against time to rescue foreign nationals, Afghan allies, and vulnerable individuals.
The withdrawal and subsequent events drew widespread criticism and condemnation. Western governments faced scrutiny for the lack of preparedness, intelligence failures, and the speed with which the Taliban took control. The collapse of the Afghan security forces, who were heavily reliant on Western support, raised questions about the effectiveness of the two-decade-long military intervention.
The abandonment of Afghanistan had far-reaching consequences. It led to the reestablishment of Taliban rule, which raised concerns about the protection of human rights, particularly for women, minorities, and those who had collaborated with Western forces. The withdrawal also had geopolitical implications and triggered debates about the future of counterterrorism efforts, regional stability, and the West's role in international interventions. Today there is great concern about the humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan and the mistreatment of women and girls under the Taliban regime.
Some non-Western countries may perceive the withdrawal as an opportunity to expand their influence in Afghanistan and the broader region. They may seek to strengthen their diplomatic, economic, or strategic ties with the new power holders, such as the Taliban. Others were conerned about possible instablity in the region and spreading elsehwere. Non-Western countries that have historically been critical of Western interventions might view the withdrawal as a confirmation of their skepticism. They may argue that the intervention was misguided, resulted in civilian casualties, and failed to achieve sustainable stability in Afghanistan.Countries with a strong focus on human rights and humanitarian issues might express worry about the fate of Afghan civilians, particularly vulnerable groups such as women, children, and minorities. They may urge the international community to provide assistance and support to address the ensuing humanitarian crisis. Some non-Western countries may see the abandonment as an opportunity for regional collaboration to address the challenges in Afghanistan. They might advocate for regional dialogue, mediation, or collective efforts to stabilize the situation and prevent further instability.
Case study: Charlie Hebdo and the Clash of Civilisations
Case study: Charlie Hebdo and the Clash of Civilisations
On 7 January 2015, a terrorist attack occurred in Paris, where two French Muslim terrorists and brothers, Saïd and Chérif Kouachi, forced their way into the offices of the French satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo. For many French people the newspaper represents freedom of expression and freedom of press, core values within French and European society as a whole. The newspaper reguarly hosts articles from across the political spectrum, however in recent years its publication of religious symbols and prophets has raised controversy. The magazine has been the target of three terrorist attacks: in 2011, 2015, and 2020. All of them were presumed to be in response to a number of cartoons that it published controversially depicting Muhammad. Here, it is important to note that within Islam, depicting Muhammad is strictly forbidden, hence, most Muslims avoid visual depictions of Muhammad or any other prophets.
In the second of these terrorist attacks (in 2015), 12 people were killed, including publishing director Charb and several other prominent cartoonists. Public expressions of outrage and large rallies support- ing Charlie Hebdo followed, showing support to the victims and to free speech as a sacred value - many online posts, posters, monuments of national importance within France and street protesters displayed the phrase 'Je Suis Charlie' - the movement highlighted a clash in ideologies - those who value freedom of expression and those who want to silence expression. The terrorist attack led to huge debate both in and outside France - can 'Western' and 'non-Western' ideologies coexist in the same space? and there was significant pushback against multiculturalism.
Some analysts saw the attacks, as a direct assault on western values and society because 'we' [Westerners] are too open and too accepting of the 'other' [non- Westerners]. Others argued such events by terrorist groups was an effort to to turn liberal people to illiberal actions. Furthermore, the assault also triggered anti- immigrant Muslim sentiments that mobilised millions of marchers led by the Patriotic Europeans Against Islamization of the West movement (Pegida) in the German city of Dresden.. In France, Marine Le Pen, leader of the far-right National Rally, called for a return to the death penalty.
Once the killers were identified, reports highlighted within the media the ties between the perpetrators and their involvement in ‘radical Islamic activism’. In later reports, the terrorists were interpreted in terms of their French origins and the challenges facing French society.
Identifications turn from their involvement in violent jihadism to physical and psychological descriptions, in which ‘they’ incorporate characteristics closer to a specific kind of French youth that is ‘disenfranchised’, ‘unemployed’ and ‘marginalized’.
Other Perspectives: Consider reading the news article: - After the Charlie Hebdo attack, we must resist the clash-of-civilisations narrative by Homa Khaleeli of The Guardian
Keywords:
Terrorist: An individual or group that employs violence and intimidation to achieve political, ideological, or religious objectives.
Freedom of expression: The right to express one's opinions, ideas, and beliefs without censorship or interference.
Freedom of press: The right of journalists and media organizations to publish and disseminate information without government control or censorship.
Multiculturalism: A social or political ideology that recognizes, respects, and promotes the coexistence of multiple cultural and ethnic groups within a society.
Jihadism: An extremist interpretation of Islam that advocates for the use of violent means to promote and establish a particular Islamic ideology or social order.
Disenfranchised: Excluded or deprived of rights, particularly in terms of participation in social, political, or economic activities.
Key Concept: The Clash of Civilisations
Key Concept: The Clash of Civilisations
The concept of the "clash of civilizations" suggests that conflicts in the world are primarily driven by cultural and religious differences between distinct civilizations, particularly between the West and non-Western societies. It posits that these clashes are inevitable and characterize the main fault lines in global relations.
The concept of the "clash of civilizations" suggests that conflicts in the world are primarily driven by cultural and religious differences between distinct civilizations, particularly between the West and non-Western societies. It posits that these clashes are inevitable and characterize the main fault lines in global relations.
Short Question: Outline the theory presented in this cartoon. Which key thinker would you most associate with this theory?
Short Question: Outline the theory presented in this cartoon. Which key thinker would you most associate with this theory?
Key Concept: Identity Politics
Key Concept: Identity Politics
Identity politics refers to the political framework where individuals or groups organise and advocate for their interests and rights based on their social, cultural, or demographic identities, such as race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. It emphasises the experiences, perspectives, and struggles specific to these identities, aiming to address inequalities and promote social justice.
Identity politics refers to the political framework where individuals or groups organise and advocate for their interests and rights based on their social, cultural, or demographic identities, such as race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. It emphasises the experiences, perspectives, and struggles specific to these identities, aiming to address inequalities and promote social justice.
Key theorist Thomas Holland Eriksen suggests that the crises of globalisation have also led to what he calls ‘a series of clashing scales’. The pace at which society has changed due to globalisation means others do not want to accept this rapid change and focus on more traditional values.
Examples include the rise of right-wing nationalism and the growth of terrorism. He argues such events are a response to individuals or groups becoming disenfranchised by globalisation and conflicts that arise from cultural diversity.
Observing trends within his home country of Norway, Eriksen argues the rise of cultural diveristy notable Muslim immigration, was indirectly to blame for the terrorist attack in Utøya, which was de facto motivated by a wish to cleanse Norwegian society of unwanted foreign influences. He also observes how the rise of Islamopobhia and its accompanying hatred of Muslims was ultimately to blame for the attack, feeding on an ethnonationalist dimension in Norwegian nationalism a well as broader European tendencies. These highlight structural conflicts within society, where globalisation has led to the politicisation of culture: culture has beocme more political. As traditional cultures feel threatened by the speedy import and spread of new technology and ideas, they resist.
Eriksen referred to this as 'overheating'. Globalisation is happening at too fast a rate for local and traditional cultures. The result of globalisation's 'overheating' is the rise of identity politics. Religious fundeamentalism and neo-natioanlism are increasing. These movements have the aim of restoring or protecting tradition, religion, ethnic or national identities. Eriksen proposes to several examples of identity politics. In Europe, the rise of ethnic natioanlism in Croatia and Serbia, Scottish nationalism, and right-wing nationalism in France, Germany, the Nordic countries and the UK. In Asia, the Middle- East, the growth of the Taliban in Afghanistan and the Hindu natioanlist party in India are also offered as examples.
Multiculturalism is in its essence anti- European civilization. It is basically an anti-Western ideology. - Samuel P. Huntington
Questions to consider:
What are the implications of Samuel P. Huntington's statement (see above) and how does it contribute to the conversation surrounding the relationship between multiculturalism and Western ideology?
Is there an increase in ethnonationalism in Ireland lately, and what are some of the ways it is being shown and affected by different factors?
LO 7.6: globalisation and political power
Economic globalisation resembles a vast puzzle where nations, businesses, and individuals from all corners of the globe come together, creating a more interconnected and smaller world. It's akin to the experience of ordering a t-shirt online from another country and having it delivered right to your door. This transformation is made possible by economic globalisation, where different countries engage in trade, exchange money, ideas, and products on a global scale, fostering increased international trade.
Consequently, economic globalisation has been instrumental in boosting global trade. The interconnectivity of the financial and banking sectors has facilitated investment through mechanisms like foreign direct investment (FDI), the expansion of multinational corporations (MNCs), and the growth of cross-border trade. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that economic globalisation has its critics who argue that it has contributed to growing inequality. This is because the advantages of globalisation have not been distributed evenly, with some nations and individuals benefiting more than others. For instance, the wages of unskilled workers in developed countries have remained stagnant or even declined in recent years due to competition from lower-wage workers in developing countries.
Positives of economic globalisation:
Enhanced economic growth and productivity: Economic globalisation has fostered a notable boost in international trade and investment. This has been advantageous for many nations, offering them access to new markets and resources while enabling them to specialize in producing goods and services at which they excel.
Reduced costs for consumers: Heightened competition from foreign companies has resulted in decreased prices for consumers. For instance, the cost of clothing and electronics has substantially declined in recent years, primarily due to competition from Chinese enterprises.
Increased accessibility to goods and services: Economic globalisation has simplified the process of obtaining goods and services from various parts of the world. Consumers can now purchase products from online retailers situated in other countries, broadening their choices.
Job creation in specific sectors: Economic globalisation has engendered job opportunities in particular sectors, such as exports and tourism.
Dissemination of technology and knowledge: Economic globalisation has facilitated the dissemination of technology and knowledge worldwide. This has particularly benefited developing countries, aiding them in augmenting their productivity and competitiveness.
Negatives of economic globalisation:
Job displacements in other sectors: Economic globalisation has also led to job displacements in certain sectors like manufacturing and agriculture. Firms often relocate their production to countries with lower labour costs, resulting in job losses in their home countries.
Escalation of inequality: Economic globalisation has given rise to increased inequality because its advantages have not been equitably distributed. Some nations and individuals have reaped more significant benefits than others. For instance, the wages of unskilled workers in developed countries have remained stagnant or even diminished due to competition from low-wage labor in developing countries.
Increased environmental breakdown: Economic globalisation has amplified the transportation of goods and services across the globe, contributing to environmental issues such as climate change and other environmental concerns.
International Trade Organisations
International Trade Organisations
The World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Bank are three of the most important international organisations involved in implementing economic globalisation.
International agreements can promote economic globalisation by:
Reducing trade barriers, such as tariffs and quotas.
Promoting investment by creating a more stable and predictable environment for businesses.
Facilitating the movement of labour and services across borders.
Establishing common standards and regulations, which can reduce costs and make it easier for businesses to trade internationally.
Helping developing countries integrate into the global economy.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) are prominent institutions that play crucial roles in the global landscape. As supranational bodies, they transcend national boundaries and foster international cooperation. These institutions are primarily funded through contributions from member countries and aim to address various pressing issues on a global scale. The IMF focuses on promoting global financial stability, providing financial assistance to countries in need, and offering economic advice. The World Bank aims to eradicate poverty and promote sustainable development by providing loans, technical assistance, and policy advice to member countries. The UNDP focuses on sustainable human development, poverty reduction, and social inclusion by supporting countries in formulating and implementing development policies. Together, these organizations strive to address challenges such as economic disparities, social inequality, poverty, and sustainable development on a supranational level.
Key term: Supranational
Key term: Supranational
Supranational refers to a form of governance or authority that transcends national boundaries, involving cooperation and decision-making among multiple nations. Examples of supranational bodies include the European Union (EU), where member states pool sovereignty in areas such as trade, currency, and governance, and the United Nations (UN), which serves as a forum for international cooperation and decision-making on global issues.
Supranational bodies play a significant role in the decision-making process regarding policies that impact young people. These organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), World Bank, and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), have various mandates and functions that contribute to policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation.
Is it time to reform the World Bank?
The question of whether it is time to reform the World Bank is a matter of debate and perspective. However, there have been calls from various civil society bodies, NGO's and world leaders advocating for reforms to address the urgent challenges.
Firstly, one of the core aims of the World Bank is to tackle global poverty. One major critic is the organisations approach to development, where it has been argued it is prioritising economic growth over pressing social issues such as rising inequality.Critics argue that certain projects financed by the Bank have led to negative consequences such as displacement of local communities, environmental degradation, and exacerbation of inequality. Calls for restructuring emphasize the need for stronger safeguards, transparency, and accountability mechanisms to ensure that World Bank-funded projects adhere to social and environmental standards.
Secondly, critics argue that the current operations of the World Bank need to be rethought to better address the challenges of the climate crisis and ensure that funds are directed towards sustainable and low-carbon development. They advocate for reforms that align the bank's investments and lending practices with climate goals and prioritize projects that contribute to mitigating and adapting to climate change. Advocates argue that the bank should increase its financing for renewable energy, sustainable infrastructure, and climate adaptation measures. Critics, on the other hand, raise concerns about potential mission creep, suggesting that the World Bank's primary focus should remain on poverty reduction and development rather than becoming predominantly a climate finance institution.
Lastly, the issue of governance and representation within the World Bank has sparked debates. Critics argue that decision-making power is skewed toward the major shareholders, primarily advanced economies, leading to a lack of voice and influence for developing countries. Calls for reform focus on increasing the voting power and representation of emerging economies and developing countries to better reflect the changing global economic landscape.
Case Study: UNDP in Ethiopia
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is a leading international organisation that works to promote sustainable development and reduce poverty around the world. Economic globalisation is a key focus of UNDP's work, as the organisation recognises that it can be a powerful force for good, but it can also lead to negative consequences if it is not managed effectively.
Ethiopia is a low-income country that is rapidly growing. In recent years, the country has attracted significant foreign investment, and its exports have grown rapidly. However, Ethiopia still faces a number of challenges, including high levels of poverty and unemployment.
UNDP is working to help Ethiopia benefit from economic globalization by supporting the development of global value chains. Global value chains are networks of production and distribution that span multiple countries. For example, a global value chain for clothing might include cotton farmers in India, garment factories in Bangladesh, and retail stores in the United States.
UNDP is working with the Ethiopian government and businesses to help Ethiopia integrate into global value chains for a variety of products, including textiles, leather, and coffee. UNDP is providing technical assistance and training to help Ethiopian businesses meet the standards required by global buyers. UNDP is also working to improve the infrastructure and logistics networks that are essential for global value chains to function effectively.
As a result of UNDP's work, Ethiopia has become a major exporter of textiles and leather goods. The country has also attracted significant investment in coffee processing and other agricultural products. This has led to job creation and economic growth in Ethiopia.
UNDP's work on global value chains is an example of how the organisation is promoting economic globalisation in a way that benefits all. UNDP is helping Ethiopia to attract foreign investment, create jobs, and export its products to the global market. This is helping to reduce poverty and promote sustainable development in Ethiopia.
Other examples of UNDP's work on economic globalization include:
Supporting the development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries.
Promoting trade and investment between developing and developed countries.
Helping developing countries to negotiate and implement international trade agreements.
Supporting the development of infrastructure and logistics networks that are essential for global trade.
UNDP's work on economic globalization is helping to create a more inclusive and sustainable global economy.
Is the IMF dominated by too many rich countries?
The dominance of rich countries within the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has sparked concerns regarding global economic inequality and marginalisation. The disproportionate influence held by affluent nations in decision-making processes and loan conditions has the potential to perpetuate disparities and leave poorer countries with limited say and bargaining power.
Critics argue that the IMF's governance structure, which grants more voting power to wealthier countries, undermines the principles of fairness and inclusivity. This imbalance raises questions about whether the interests and needs of less affluent nations are adequately represented and addressed. Such disparities in decision-making can result in policies that prioritize the economic concerns of the dominant countries at the expense of equitable and sustainable development for all.
Moreover, the conditions attached to IMF loans have been a point of contention. Detractors argue that the imposition of strict fiscal policies and structural adjustments can have detrimental effects on the social welfare and livelihoods of people in borrowing countries, particularly the most vulnerable populations. The one-size-fits-all approach may not take into account the unique circumstances and development challenges faced by individual nations, potentially exacerbating inequality and marginalization.
To address these concerns, there have been calls for reforms within the IMF to ensure a more equitable distribution of power and decision-making. This could include revisiting the voting structure to provide greater representation for developing countries and giving more weight to the voices of those directly affected by IMF policies.
Efforts should also be made to enhance transparency, accountability, and participation in the IMF's decision-making processes. This would involve fostering meaningful engagement with civil society organizations, promoting dialogue with borrowing countries, and considering the diverse perspectives and needs of all stakeholders.
By addressing the dominance of rich countries within the IMF and incorporating a more inclusive and balanced approach, there is a greater chance to mitigate global economic inequality and marginalization. Only by ensuring that the IMF's policies and actions reflect the interests of all member nations can we move closer to a more equitable and sustainable global economic system.
Is there a problem with economic globalisation?
Just like how globalisation speeds up technology, it also makes trading happen faster. Rich countries in the Global North rely on poorer countries in the Global South to make things way cheaper than they could at home. But this creates big problems for workers and the environment.
For example, think about an €8 t-shirt. It is designed in Europe but made in Bangladesh, and big companies still make a lot of money from selling such cheap clothing This situation shows how complicated the global system is and makes us wonder if workers get paid fairly, work in good conditions, and if it' is bad for the environment.
Economic globalisation drives consumerism and neoliberal policies as a result the environment and worker rights are often an afterthought. For example, 80% of Bangladesh’s exports come from the clothes industry. There are 5,600 clothing factories employing 4 million workers producing $21 billion of clothing, mostly for western multinational clothing retailers.
Competition is tough and customers expect quality clothing at low prices. To maintain profits, multinational retailers source their clothes in locations with low labour costs such as Bangladesh. Many garment workers are dependent on the wages they earn, which average $60 per month.
In 2013, garment workers in many factories in Bangladesh were paid an average of $38 per month, which is less than the minimum wage in Bangladesh at the time. The minimum wage was $68 per month in 2013. However, many workers were paid even less than the minimum wage, and some were paid as little as $30 per month.
In April 2013, a clothing factory at Rana Plaza in Dhaka, collapsed. One thousand people lost their lives and 2,500 were injured. The factory was staffed mostly by women. The building was deemed unsafe the day before the collapse and people were sent home.
However, as stoppages were very costly for the factory owners, employees came under pressure to resume work the next day. Western clothing retailers were pressed to justify the manufacture of their clothing in sub-standard buildings like Rana Plaza. The collapse also threw a spotlight on the conditions of people in Bangladesh and other developing countries working for multinational companies. Many international clothing brands from H&M, Penny's (Primark), Zara, to Next were found to have some of their clothing and other products produced at such factories.
In 2011, a report by the environmental group Greenpeace found that American clothing brand Gap Inc. suppliers in China were discharging wastewater containing harmful chemicals into rivers. The report also found that Gap Inc. was not doing enough to monitor its suppliers' environmental practices.
Gap Inc. has since taken some steps to address the issue of water pollution. For example, the company has developed a water stewardship strategy and it has begun to source denim from more sustainable suppliers. However, the company still faces criticism from environmental groups for its role in water pollution. Another example of Gap Inc.'s involvement in water pollution is the company's use of cotton. Cotton is a water-intensive crop, and it can also use harmful pesticides and fertilizers. Gap Inc. has been criticised for its use of cotton from suppliers that have been found to be polluting waterways and harming local communities. In 2012, a report by the environmental group WaterAid found that Gap Inc. suppliers in India were using excessive amounts of water to grow cotton. The report also found that Gap Inc. was not doing enough to help its suppliers to reduce their water consumption.
Clothing companies often turn to countries in the Global South due to cheap labour and weak workers' rights legislation.
In 2013, more than a thousand lives were tragically lost when a clothing factory in Bangladesh collapsed. This incident raised concerns among consumers about the origins of their clothing.
The UN states that the fast fashion industry is responsible for 20% of global wastewater pollution. Many brands prioritise making money over protecting clean water by getting rid of untreated factory waste cheaply in streams and rivers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of MNCs
Advantages:
MNCs provide employment and incomes to workers in developing countries. For example, Dell employs over 20,000 people in India.
MNCs pay taxes to developing countries, which governments can use on services and infrastructure.
Some MNCs contribute to community development schemes that benefit workers and their families. For example, Nespresso supports coffee farmers in Costa Rica.
MNCs help create additional employment in companies that supply them in developing countries.
Increased job opportunities have encouraged improvement in education. People realize they can access better-paid employment if they are educated.
Disadvantages:
Wages are often low, the working day is long, working conditions are poor and employees are not allowed to form trade unions.
Often the poorest people do not see the benefits of improved services.
In some countries, MNCs receive special treatment at the expense of people. For example, there were complaints that Coca Cola had better access to water supplies in Rajasthan, India than did local people.
MNCs have no loyalty to the developing countries in which they are located. They can move easily when tax breaks and incentives are better elsewhere.
Many MNC jobs are low-skilled and are the first to be lost in a recession.
Anti-globalisation and Pro-globalisation
Anti-globalisation commentators and activists argue that as global trade has increased, the poverty gap between the rich and poor has increased significantly. It is argued global trade serves only to tighten the dependency relationship between developed and underdeveloped countries. However, there are claims there is no proof that increased trade has led to economic growth for developing countries. International economic system is itself unfairly loaded in favour of developed nations.
Pro-globalisation commentators and activists argue for open, free markets with minimal government intervention is the key to economic growth. It is argued by opening your economy it reduces the costs of trade and increasing profits for both developed and developing countries.
LO 7.7: participants in these debates
Key Theorist: Edward Said
Key Theorist: Edward Said
Concepts: identity, orinertalism, globalisation, the west, arab culture
Edward Said criticized the concept of Orientalism, which he believed perpetuated Western stereotypes and power imbalances in the representation of the East.
Said argued that cultural identities are not fixed or predetermined, but rather constructed through interactions and exchanges.
He emphasized the importance of understanding the complexity and interconnectedness of cultures in the era of globalization, rejecting the idea of a singular clash between civilizations and instead advocating for dialogue and mutual understanding between diverse cultures.
Resources
Key Theorist: Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Key Theorist: Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Concepts: globalisation, overheating, environmnetalism, terrorism, identity
Thomas Hylland Eriksen has explored the concept of "overheating" in relation to globalisation and its consequences on societies. The notion of overheating refers to the acceleration and intensification of social, cultural, economic, and environmental processes due to the forces of globalisation. Eriksen argues that the world is experiencing a state of overheating, which manifests in various ways:
Cultural Overheating: Globalisation has brought about an unprecedented flow of ideas, values, images, and symbols across borders. This leads to the mixing, borrowing, and hybridization of cultural forms, resulting in a sense of cultural overload and the blurring of traditional boundaries. Eriksen argues that this cultural overheating can create a sense of disorientation and loss of cultural identity.
Economic Overheating: Globalisation has fueled rapid economic growth and intensified market forces. Eriksen suggests that this economic overheating leads to increased consumption, resource exploitation, and economic inequality. The pursuit of endless economic expansion can strain ecosystems, deplete resources, and contribute to social and economic disparities.
Social Overheating: Eriksen highlights that globalization has led to significant social changes and disruptions. Traditional social structures and norms are often challenged or undermined, leading to dislocation, inequality, and conflicts. Social overheating can result in social unrest, polarization, and the erosion of social cohesion.
Environmental Overheating: Globalisation has had profound environmental consequences. Eriksen argues that the rapid growth of production and consumption patterns associated with globalization puts immense pressure on the environment. It leads to environmental degradation, resource depletion, pollution, and climate change, exacerbating global environmental crises.
According to Eriksen, overheating is not inherently negative, but it poses significant challenges for societies. It requires careful management and adaptation to prevent detrimental consequences. Eriksen emphasizes the need for sustainable practices, cultural resilience, and social and political transformations to address the issues arising from overheating and ensure a more balanced and equitable globalised world.
Resources
Key Theorist: Samuel Huntington
Key Theorist: Samuel Huntington
Concepts: globalisation, identity, the clash of civilisations
Samuel Huntington was a political scientist who believed that people's identities are closely tied to their cultures, traditions, and beliefs, and that globalization could threaten these identities.
He argued that future conflicts would arise primarily between civilizations rather than nation-states, as differing values, beliefs, and cultural identities would create tensions between the West and non-Western societies.
In his theory of the "clash of civilizations," he suggested that these clashes would overshadow traditional ideological and economic conflicts, shaping the global political landscape.
Resources
Key Theorist: Kwame Anthony Appiah
Key Theorist: Kwame Anthony Appiah
Concepts: identity, cosmopolitianism, globalisation, human rights
Kwame Anthony Appiah is a renowned philosopher, cultural theorist, and author who explores topics such as identity, ethics, and multiculturalism.
He has written extensively on the concept of cosmopolitanism, advocating for a global perspective that emphasizes shared values and cultural exchange while respecting individual identities.
Appiah's work delves into the complexities of race, ethnicity, and cultural belonging, challenging essentialist notions and promoting a nuanced understanding of identity construction.
He has also contributed to the discourse on moral philosophy, examining ethical frameworks and addressing questions of moral relativism and universalism.
Introducing Sustainable Development
Introducing Sustainable Development
Sustainable development has emerged as a guiding principle for addressing the interconnected challenges of (1) economic growth, (2) social well-being, and (3) environmental stewardship. It recognises the need to meet the present needs of society without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. As countries and organizations worldwide grapple with pressing issues such as climate change, poverty, inequality, and resource depletion, the concept of sustainable development serves as a guiding framework to foster a harmonious and prosperous future for both humanity and the planet we inhabit.
Key term: Sustainable Development
Key term: Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is an approach that seeks to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It emphasizes the integration of economic growth, social progress, and environmental protection to ensure long-term well-being and harmony between people and the planet.
LO 8.1: actions that address sustainable development
Before we discuss the concept of sustainable development, it is important to consider debates around development. According to the United Nations (UN) development can be defined as "a multidimensional undertaking to achieve a higher quality of life for all people. Economic development, social development and environmental protection are interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development".
Development can be defined as a process of transformation. This process is not limited to developing nations but extends to all countries and regions. Furthermore, development frequently exhibits inequalities, manifesting at local, national, and global levels. The concept of development has undergone changes over time.
Factors that influence development:
Factors that influence development:
Development at local, national, European and global level is often uneven a trend significantly shaped by historical factors.
Colonialism: Colonialism is a system of political and economic domination by one country over another. Colonialism often led to the exploitation of natural resources and the suppression of economic development in the colonized countries. This can be seen in the case of Africa and Latin America where colonialism led to the extraction of natural resources such as rubber and diamonds, while the majority of the population lived in poverty.
Inequality: Inequality can be a major obstacle to development. When a small group of people control a large share of the wealth, it can be difficult for the majority of the population to improve their lives.
Government corruption: Government corruption can also be a major obstacle to development. When government officials are corrupt, they may use public resources for their own personal gain. This can lead to a lack of investment in infrastructure and social services, which can hinder economic growth.
Corporate corruption: Many multinational companies (MNCs) produce goods in developing nations under exploitative conditions or set up headquarters in low-tax countries. Tax evasion can drain funds from the local and national economy, hindering development.
Globalisation: Globalisation is the process of increasing interconnectedness between countries and people. Globalisation has led to the free flow of goods, services, capital, and ideas, which has helped to promote economic growth and development. However, globalisation is not even and is often seen as increasing the gap between rich and poor countries and regions.
Education: Education plays a crucial role in development. Educated individuals tend to be more productive and capable of making informed life choices. However, access to education can be restricted by various factors, including the political system, gender, ethnicity, global events like COVID-19, and conflicts.
Healthcare: Healthcare is a vital component of development. Healthy individuals are more likely to be productive contributors to their communities. However, factors like diseases, lack of immunisation, inadequate healthcare spending, and limited health education can hinder access to healthcare services.
How do we measure development?
How do we measure development?
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP measures the total value of goods and services produced within a country during a specific period, usually a year. It is often utilised as a gauge of economic development. However, it's important to recognise that GDP does not encompass overall well-being or quality of life.
Gross National Income (GNI): GNI is a measure of a country's total income earned by its residents, including income from abroad. It offers a broader view than GDP. GNI can indicate development as it relates to measures like life expectancy, education, and income inequality. However, it does not consider income distribution within a country, so it may hide disparities between the wealthy and the poor. Like GDP, GNI doesn't reflect the overall quality of life.
Human Development Index (HDI): The HDI is a combined indicator considering life expectancy, education levels, and income, providing a broader view of development than GDP, which focuses solely on economic growth.
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): The MPI assesses poverty by looking at various factors like income, education, health, and housing. It gives a more complete view of poverty than GDP or HDI since it recognizes different ways people can be deprived.
Gender Inequality Index (GII): The GII measures gender inequality by looking at different disparities, including access to education, healthcare, and political participation. It provides a better understanding of gender inequality than GDP or HDI because it acknowledges the various disadvantages that women may encounter.
Timeline of key events:
Timeline of key events:
Here is a timeline highlighting key events and milestones in the history of sustainable development:
1987: The Brundtland Report, also known as "Our Common Future," is published by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. It introduces the concept of sustainable development and emphasizes the need for integrating environmental, social, and economic considerations.
1992: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, is held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The summit leads to the adoption of Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development, and the establishment of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD).
2000: The United Nations Millennium Summit takes place, leading to the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs set specific targets to address poverty, education, health, gender equality, and environmental sustainability by 2015.
2012: The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) takes place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The conference focuses on green economy, poverty eradication, and the institutional framework for sustainable development. It leads to the adoption of the outcome document titled "The Future We Want."
2015: The United Nations adopts the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, along with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs consist of 17 interconnected goals, ranging from poverty eradication and education to climate action and sustainable consumption.
2016: The Paris Agreement, a landmark international treaty to combat climate change, enters into force. It aims to limit global warming well below 2 degrees Celsius and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.
2021: COP26 held in the UK in conjuction with Italy, resulted in signing of the Glasgow Pact and Paris Rule Book. The Pact setting out what needs to be done to tackle climate change, however it is not legally binding or country specific. The Rule Book includes agreement in relation to (1) enhanced transparency framework for reporting emissions, (2) common timeframes for emissions reductions targets and mechanisms and standards for international carbon markets.
2022: COP27 held in Egypt closed with a breakthrough agreement to provide loss and damage funding for vulnerable countries hit hard by floods, droughts and other climate disasters.
2023: COP28 set to take place this late November through to early December in Dubai.
Sustainable Development Goals
Sustainable Development Goals
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, are a set of 17 interconnected goals established by the United Nations (UN) in 2015. They aim to address major global challenges and guide international efforts toward sustainable development by the year 2030. The SDGs build upon the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that were in place from 2000 to 2015. Ireland co-led the 2030 Agenda negotiations alongside Kenya.
Resources
LO 8.1: actions that address sustainable development
Fair Trade, Free Trade, and Ethical Trade
Fair Trade, Free Trade, and Ethical Trade
In the world of global business, three different ways guide how countries trade and think about what's fair. These are Fair Trade, Free Trade, and Ethical Trade. Each approach has its own set of principles and goals.
Fair trade: aims to ensure that producers in developing countries receive fair prices for their goods and that their working conditions are safe and humane.
Free trade: on the other hand, advocates for the removal of all barriers to trade between countries, allowing goods to flow freely across borders.
Ethical trade: is a more general term that encompasses fair trade and other initiatives that promote responsible sourcing and labour practices.
Fair Trade
Fair Trade
Fair Trade became popular in the 1960s and 1970s through the creation of alternative trade groups. These initiatives aimed to tackle economic inequalities faced by artisans and farmers in developing countries by ensuring they were paid fair prices for their goods. In the 1980s, labelling organizations like Fair Trade International (formerly known as Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International or FLO) were formed, establishing standards for Fair Trade certification. Since then, the movement has grown worldwide, influencing how consumers behave and raising awareness of ethical consumption.
Fair Trade is guided by principles that seek to create a more balanced trading relationship between producers in developing nations and consumers in developed ones. These principles often include:
Fair prices: Minimum prices are set for goods, ensuring that producers receive wages above the market average.
Social premiums: Part of the sales from Fair Trade products is allocated for community development projects, such as education and healthcare.
Fair labour practices: Producers associated with Fair Trade must adhere to standards for working conditions, including a prohibition on child labour and forced labour.
Arguments on Fair Trade
Arguments on Fair Trade
Free Trade
Free Trade
Free trade is an economic policy that advocates for the removal of all barriers to trade between countries. Proponents of free trade argue that it can lead to economic growth, increased consumer choice, and lower prices. Examples include the free-trade agreement between the 27 countries of the EU and the special trade agreement between Canada, Mexico and the United States of America known as USMCA.
The concept of Free Trade has deep historical roots, but its modern form emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries. The 19th-century British Empire played a significant role in promoting Free Trade through policies such as the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), established in 1947, marked a post-World War II effort to reduce trade barriers. The subsequent creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 further institutionalized the principles of Free Trade, advocating for the removal of obstacles to international commerce.
What’s the difference between ethical trade and fair trade?
Ethical trade, a comprehensive concept encompassing fair trade, involves a wide array of ethical considerations across the supply chain, ensuring products meet specified standards for fair compensation, environmental sustainability, and labour rights. Fair trade, as a specific certification
Arguments on Free Trade
Arguments on Free Trade
Ethical Trade
Ethical Trade
Ethical trade is a broader term that encompasses a variety of initiatives that promote responsible sourcing and labour practices. Ethical trade principles may include some or all of the elements of fair trade, but they may also address other issues, such as environmental sustainability and animal welfare.
The concept of Ethical Trade evolved in response to concerns about labour conditions, human rights abuses, and environmental degradation associated with global supply chains. In the late 20th century, incidents such as the exploitation of sweatshop workers and environmental disasters prompted increased scrutiny of business practices. The term "ethical trade" gained prominence in the 1990s as a way to describe a more conscientious approach to sourcing and production. Ethical Trade initiatives began to focus on transparency, fair labour practices, and environmentally sustainable methods. The 21st century saw a growing emphasis on corporate social responsibility, with companies adopting ethical sourcing policies and consumers demanding greater accountability in the production of goods.
LO 8.2: arguments concerning sustainable development
LO 8.3: participants in these debates
Key Theorist: Vandana Shiva
Key Theorist: Vandana Shiva
Key theorist: Vandana Shiva
Details coming soon...
Resources
Key Theorist: Seán McDonagh
Key Theorist: Seán McDonagh
Details coming soon...
Resources
Key Theorist: Andre Gunder Frank
Key Theorist: Andre Gunder Frank
Details coming soon...
Resources
Introducing Development
Introducing Development
Development is an exciting concept that focuses on making the world a better and fairer place for everyone. It's like a big puzzle, where people from different countries and cultures work together to solve global challenges and create positive change. Global development tackles issues such as poverty, inequality, climate change, education, and healthcare on a global scale. It's about ensuring that every person, regardless of where they were born, has access to opportunities and a chance to thrive. Development is not evenly spread around the world, which means that some countries and regions are more developed than others. This unevenness creates significant disparities in living conditions, access to resources, and opportunities. While some places may have advanced infrastructure, quality education, and healthcare systems, others struggle with poverty, limited access to clean water, and inadequate healthcare. This imbalance highlights the importance of working towards a more equitable world where everyone has a fair chance to prosper and reach their full potential.
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