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Introduction to Power & Decision-making
Introduction to Power & Decision-making
Power and decision-making operate differently at various levels of society. At the individual level, power lies within personal agency and the ability to make choices that affect one's life and immediate surroundings. Individuals exercise decision-making power in their everyday interactions and pursuits, reflecting their values and priorities.
At the school level, power is distributed among students, teachers, and administrators. Students have a say in their education through class participation and student councils, while teachers and administrators make decisions on curriculum, discipline, and school policies. Inclusivity and cooperation are crucial in fostering a positive learning environment.
Moving up to the community level, power is shared among residents, local leaders, and organizations. Community members participate in town hall meetings, community projects, and voting to influence decisions on issues such as infrastructure, social services, and environmental policies. Collaborative efforts ensure that the diverse needs and interests of the community are taken into account.
At the Irish government level, power rests with elected officials, policymakers, and governmental bodies. The democratic process empowers citizens to elect representatives who make decisions on legislation, public services, and national interests. Transparency and accountability are vital to maintaining public trust and ensuring that decisions align with the welfare of the Irish population.
At the EU level, power is distributed among member states, the European Parliament, the European Commission, and the European Council. This complex network aims to harmonize policies across countries, fostering cooperation on trade, security, and various shared challenges. Decision-making involves negotiations and compromise among member states, requiring a delicate balance between national sovereignty and supranational unity.
Finally, at the UN level, power is shared among member states within the General Assembly, the Security Council, and specialized agencies. The UN serves as a platform for global dialogue and cooperation, addressing international issues like peacekeeping, human rights, and climate change. Striving for consensus among diverse nations, the UN seeks to promote peaceful resolutions and collective action for the betterment of humanity as a whole.
Keywords:
Personal Agency: Every person has agency meaning you have the power to make choices and take actions that affect your own life.
Personal Agency: Every person has agency meaning you have the power to make choices and take actions that affect your own life.
European Union (EU): The European Union (EU) is supranational government made up of 27 different member states. The union works together on issues such as trade, human rights and it make rules that apply to everyone.
European Union (EU): The European Union (EU) is supranational government made up of 27 different member states. The union works together on issues such as trade, human rights and it make rules that apply to everyone.
United Nations (UN)
United Nations (UN)
The United Nations (UN) is another type of supranational government, where the majority of the countries worldwide despite their differences come together to work on local and global issues.
The United Nations (UN) is another type of supranational government, where the majority of the countries worldwide despite their differences come together to work on local and global issues.
LO 1.1: processes of power and decision-making in thier school
Key term: Social Contract
Key term: Social Contract
A social contract is an idea that people in a society agree to follow rules and work together to keep things fair, safe, and good for everyone.
A social contract is an idea that people in a society agree to follow rules and work together to keep things fair, safe, and good for everyone.
Power and Decision-making in Schools
Power and Decision-making in Schools
In schools, the seamless progression of the learning journey relies on the interplay of power and decision-making. Teachers and principals play pivotal roles in determining the curriculum, classroom management, and enforcement of rules. Simultaneously, students also possess a measure of influence, such as participating in class discussions, selecting clubs or activities, and occasionally aiding in shaping school policies. A collaborative approach, where everyone cooperates and listens to one another, fosters an inclusive environment where all ideas and needs are valued, resulting in a truly magical learning experience. Consequently, power and decision-making within a school community become a collective endeavor, with teachers, staff, and students contributing together to create an outstanding environment for growth and education. Nonetheless, it's important to acknowledge that power structures may differ from one school to another.
Who makes decisions within our school?
Who makes decisions within our school?
The combined efforts and interactions of stakeholders shape the overall environment and decision-making processes within the school community. Some of these stakeholders include the Board of Management, Senior Management, Teachers, Parents/Guardians and increasingly students have the opportunity to shape their school environment through a Student Council.
The typical decision-making structure in an Irish school
LO 1.2: arguments concerning the need for rules
Keywords:
Human nature: Human nature refers to the inherent and fundamental characteristics, behaviors, and tendencies that are common to all human beings.
Pessimistic: Having a negative or gloomy outlook on life or a particular situation.
Central Authority: A governing body or person with significant power and control over a group or society.
Social Contract: An implicit or explicit agreement in which individuals give up some freedoms to form a society and be governed by its rules.
Authoritative System: A system of governance characterised by strict control and adherence to rules and commands from those in power.
Optimistic: Having a positive or hopeful view of life or a particular situation.
Individual Liberties: Personal freedoms and rights that are inherent to each person e.g. freedom of speech.
Personal Autonomy: The ability and right of an individual to make independent decisions and choices for oneself.
Key theorists Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were influential philosophers who held differing views on human nature and the need for rules in society.
Hobbes' perspective on human nature was pessimistic. He believed that humans are inherently selfish and driven by their own self-interests. In his famous work "Leviathan," he argued that without a strong central authority, life would be "nasty, brutish, and short." To prevent chaos and maintain order, Hobbes asserted the necessity of a social contract, where individuals willingly give up some of their freedoms in exchange for protection and security provided by a powerful ruler or government.
Hobbes would argue that rules are essential in schools to impose discipline and maintain order among students. He might advocate for a strict and authoritative system of rules, with clear consequences for those who break them. The school's authority figures, such as teachers and administrators, would play a crucial role in enforcing these rules to ensure a peaceful learning environment.
Contrary to Hobbes, John Locke had a more optimistic view of human nature. He believed that humans are born as "blank slates" and are shaped by their experiences and environment. If Locke was alive today he would emphasize the importance of rules in schools to protect individual rights and promote a fair and just learning environment. However, he would be more inclined towards rules that respect students' individual liberties and personal autonomy. He might advocate for rules that encourage open communication and cooperation between students and teachers, allowing students to have a say in shaping certain aspects of the school's rules and policies.
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
Social contract in a school setting
Social contract in a school setting
The idea of a social contract can be found in schools concerning power dynamics and decision-making. Schools can be viewed as a micro-community of the wider community with their own set of rules and norms, involving students, teachers, caregivers and management, each with a role in the functioning of the institution.
One aspect of this social contract relates to the agreement between students and teachers when they enroll in the school. In this mutual agreement, students commit to following the school's rules, and teachers pledge to provide education and guidance. Additionally, there exists a social contract between the school and the community it serves. The school commits to offering education to the community's children, and the community, in turn, supports the school in a number of ways.
The concept of the social contract helps to explain the power dynamics in schools, where all stakeholders have their respective powers but are limited by the terms of the contract. Moreover, it sheds light on the decision-making process, which often involves negotiation and compromise, with the inclusion of all stakeholders' voices.
This social contract principle can be observed in various policies within schools, such as the school uniform, anti-bullying policy, and mobile phone use. For example, the school uniform represents an agreement between students and the school to maintain a safe and orderly learning environment in exchange for students adhering to the dress code. Similarly, an anti-bullying policy constitutes a social contract wherein students agree not to bully one another, and the school commits to preventing bullying and taking appropriate action against those involved.
Although there may be individuals who do not comply with the established rules despite agreeing to them, it can be argued the social contract contributes to cultivating a positive and productive school environment for the majority. In practical terms, the application of the social contract can involve creating guidelines for the school uniform through negotiations between students and the school. The formation of a student council can give students a voice in developing anti-bullying policies, and meetings with parents and students can determine the specifics of a mobile phone ban.
While the concept of the social contract may not be a flawless solution to all challenges in schools, it serves as a valuable tool to promote democratic and equitable school environments.
Choose between The Hobbes School or The School of Locke
Choose between The Hobbes School or The School of Locke
Imagine key theorists Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, two influential philosophers from the past, opening their own schools in the present day. Their different philosophies would shape the educational landscape, leading to unique experiences and outcomes in each school.
The School of Hobbes
At The School of Hobbes, a strict and authoritative atmosphere would prevail. Rules would be rigidly enforced, leaving little room for dissent or disobedience. Students would be expected to unquestioningly abide by the rules, and any violations would be met with severe and immediate consequences.
The social contract in this school would require students to give up certain aspects of their individual freedoms in exchange for protection and a controlled environment. Rules and regulations would be strictly enforced, and any disobedience or dissent would be met with severe consequences. The school authority and teachers would hold significant power and students would be expected to follow their instructions without question.
The School of Locke
The School of Locke would foster an optimistic environment, grounded in Locke's confidence in people's natural ability to think rationally and to self-govern.
The social contract in this school would be built on mutual trust and cooperation among students, teachers, and the authority. Like Hobbes' school, Locke's educational institution would also prioritise protecting students' rights and fostering a favourable learning environment.
Within The School of Locke, students would be encouraged to embrace individual freedom and autonomy. Although compliance with rules would still be expected, students would enjoy more liberty in making their own decisions. The school's emphasis on creativity and individuality would foster an open and democratic setting, empowering students to actively participate in decision-making processes and freely express their thoughts and ideas.
The contrasting philosophies of Hobbes and Locke would give rise to two distinct educational settings: one characterised by strict control and discipline, and the other promoting individual freedom and active student involvement in shaping their educational journey.
Debate
Debate
Discuss the pros and cons of Hobbes' idea that people need strict rules and control, compared to Locke's belief that people can govern themselves responsibly. How do these ideas affect how schools make rules and manage behaviour?
Let's examine different models that facilitate enhanced student involvement in decision-making within schools.
Case Study: Lundy Model of Participation
Case Study: Lundy Model of Participation
DATA & EVIDENCE:
Information to go here soon...
Developed in the 1970s in Sweden, the Lundy Model plays a significant role in encouraging student participation in schools. It's like a blueprint or plan that helps schools create an environment where students have a real say in what happens. Imagine your school as a big puzzle, and the Lund Model is the piece that ensures your voice fits right in!
With the Lundy Model, students are seen as valuable contributors to decision-making processes. It's all about treating you as responsible and capable individuals, rather than just followers. This means teachers and school leaders listen to your opinions, ideas, and concerns. It's like being part of a team where everyone's input matters!
The model encourages things like student councils, where you elect representatives to speak on your behalf. These councils help bring your ideas to the table when discussing school policies, activities, and even improvements to the learning environment.
Beyond student councils, the Lund Model also promotes open discussions in classrooms. It's not just the teacher talking, but a space for you and your classmates to share thoughts and ask questions. This fosters a sense of belonging and engagement, making learning more enjoyable and meaningful.
Case Study: The development of Student Councils in Ireland
Case Study: The development of Student Councils in Ireland
DATA & EVIDENCE:
Information to go here soon...
The UN's Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has, over time, made recommendations to Ireland concerning the inclusion of student voices in schools. One of these suggestions is the promotion of Student Councils. Further, Article 12 of the UNCRC emphasises the right of children to freely express their views on matters affecting them and to have those views considered according to their age and maturity.
In response, the Government of Ireland acknowledged the importance of student voices by recognising them in the Education Act (1998). This act facilitates the establishment of student councils, aiming to make them an integral and significant part of the school community. Initially, schools were slow to embrace student councils, but by 2004, out of 744 secondary schools in Ireland, 561 had successfully implemented them. Moreover, in 2008, the Irish Second-Level Union (ISSU) was established as a representative body for schools in Ireland.
The ISSU has several key objectives, including providing a collective voice for second-level students and representing them as stakeholders in their education and society at local, regional, national, and international levels. It also strives for a transparent, fair, and modern education system, promoting equal access to education while fighting against discrimination and injustice within the Irish education system. Additionally, the ISSU empowers student councils to become democratic and effective representative bodies within their school communities and works to address challenges faced by students on various levels.
For your own exploration, consider investigating the role of the student council in your school or a neighboring one.
Case Study: The Democratic Classroom
Case Study: The Democratic Classroom
Keywords:
Democratic classroom: A learning environment where students actively participate in decision-making and collaboration, fostering a sense of community.
Self-direction: The ability and initiative to take charge of one's own learning or tasks without constant external guidance.
Self-management: The capability to regulate behavior, emotions, and time effectively to achieve personal and academic goals.
Mediation: A process of resolving conflicts between parties with the help of a neutral third party who facilitates communication and guides them towards finding mutually acceptable solutions.
Arbitration: A method of settling disputes outside of the court system where an impartial third party makes a final, binding decision after reviewing arguments and evidence presented by both parties.
Video:
Let's take a look at what life is like at democractic school in Sligo, Ireland. Click here to view video.
The democratic classroom is a learning environment in which students are encouraged to participate in decision-making and to take responsibility for their own learning. The idea of the democratic classroom originated in the early 20th century and is increasingly becoming the way to empower students and prepare them for the 21st century.
The Sudbury model of democratic education was developed. It is seen as a progressive educational philosophy that emphasises student self-direction and self-management. Students in Sudbury schools are free to choose their own activities, learn at their own pace, and interact with each other in a non-coercive environment.
The first Sudbury school was founded in 1968 in Framingham, Massachusetts, inspired by the ideas of the Summerhill School, a progressive school in England.
The Sudbury model has since spread to over 50 schools in the United States, Canada, and Europe. Sudbury schools are typically small, with fewer than 100 students. This allows for a high degree of individualization and attention to each student's needs. There are three Sudbury schools in Ireland one in Sligo, followed by Wicklow and West Cork.
In a Sudbury school, students are free to do whatever they want, as long as they do not interfere with the rights of others. This means that students can choose to study, play, socialise, or simply relax. There are no required classes or curriculum, and students are not graded. The only rule in a Sudbury school is the "no-harm" rule. This means that students are not allowed to do anything that could harm themselves or others. This rule is enforced by the students themselves, through a system of mediation and arbitration.
There is no one-size-fits-all answer to the question of whether or not Sudbury schools are right for everyone. However, they can be a good fit for students who are self-motivated and who thrive in a non-coercive environment.
Benefits
Increased student engagement: Sudbury students are more likely to be engaged in their learning because they are free to choose their own activities and learn at their own pace.
Improved social skills: Sudbury students are more likely to develop strong social skills because they are required to interact with each other in a non-coercive environment.
Increased self-confidence: Sudbury students are more likely to develop a strong sense of self-confidence because they are given the freedom to make their own decisions and take responsibility for their own learning.
Challenges
The need for strong self-management skills: Sudbury students need to be able to manage their time and their work effectively in order to succeed in this type of environment.
The need for a supportive community: Sudbury schools thrive when there is a strong sense of community among the students and staff.
The need for clear expectations: Sudbury students need to be clear about the expectations for behavior and conduct in order to thrive in this type of environment.
Questions to consider:
What is a democratic classroom?
How do students participate in decision-making in a democratic classroom?
Can you list some benefits of a democratic classroom?
How does a democratic classroom promote student engagement?
Compare and contrast a democratic classroom with a traditional classroom.
Create a proposal for introducing democratic principles into a non-democratic classroom and outline the potential benefits and challenges it may bring.
Let's explore various ways rules are promoted in school
Decision-making and the roles of different groups with managing bullying
Decision-making and the roles of different groups with managing bullying
Research and Effectiveness:
The KiVa program's effectiveness has been extensively researched and evaluated since its inception. Several randomized control trials and longitudinal studies have shown promising results, indicating significant reductions in bullying incidents and an improvement in the overall school climate.
The program's success is attributed to its holistic approach, which combines prevention, intervention, and support strategies. By focusing on changing the school culture and empowering all stakeholders, including students, teachers, and parents, KiVa addresses the complex dynamics of bullying effectively.
International Recognition:
Due to its success, KiVa has gained international recognition, and many countries have adopted and adapted the program to their own cultural and educational contexts. The program's evidence-based approach and positive outcomes have made it a valuable tool in the global effort to combat bullying and create safer and more inclusive learning environments for students.
Overall, KiVa's dedication to preventing bullying, supporting victims, and involving the entire school community has made it a significant and successful initiative in the ongoing fight against bullying in schools.
KiVa is an evidence-based anti-bullying program developed in Finland. The name "KiVa" is an acronym for "Kiusaamista Vastaan," which translates to "against bullying" in English. The program was established in 2007 by researchers and educators at the University of Turku in response to the growing concern about bullying in Finnish schools.
The primary goal of the KiVa program is to prevent and address bullying incidents effectively while promoting a positive school culture and enhancing the overall well-being of students. It is designed to be implemented in both primary and secondary schools, targeting students between the ages of 7 to 15.
Key Components of the KiVa Program:
Prevention: The program places a strong emphasis on proactive measures to prevent bullying. It includes systematic interventions and activities that raise awareness about bullying and its negative consequences, aiming to create a safe and supportive school environment.
Support for Victims: KiVa focuses on supporting victims of bullying by providing them with the necessary tools and strategies to cope with bullying situations. This support includes personalized interventions and peer support mechanisms.
Addressing the Bystander Role: The program recognizes the crucial role of bystanders in either reinforcing or deterring bullying behavior. KiVa seeks to empower bystanders to intervene and report bullying incidents, thus reducing the prevalence of bullying in schools.
Training for Teachers: KiVa provides comprehensive training to teachers and school staff, equipping them with the knowledge and skills to recognize bullying behavior and effectively address incidents as they arise.
Online Tools: The program offers online tools and resources to facilitate data collection and monitoring of bullying incidents. This data-driven approach helps schools to identify patterns and trends related to bullying and tailor interventions accordingly.
Decision-making and the roles of different groups with managing mobile phone use in schools
Decision-making and the roles of different groups with managing mobile phone use in schools
Research and Data:
Research from the CybersafeKids charity indicates that smartphone ownership among eight and nine-year-olds stands at 30%, and by the age of 12, this number increases to 77%. The connection between social media exposure and rising anxiety levels among children due to cyberbullying, online predators, and inappropriate content has become a significant concern for parents and educators alike.
In an era where smartphones are found everywhere, parents and guardians face emotional pressure when deciding the appropriate age for their children to own one. The desire to fit in and avoid being left out often leads children to plead that "everyone else in the class has one." Acknowledging the growing concerns about the impact of smartphones, parents at St. Kevin's National School in Greystones, Co Wicklow, have taken a proactive approach by voluntarily adopting a code to delay smartphone ownership for their children until they reach second-level education.
Background:
St. Kevin's NS, with its 480 pupils, already has a policy in place that prohibits the use of smartphones during school hours or on school premises. However, recognising the increasing pressure on parents to provide smartphones to their children at younger ages, the school's Parents' Association decided to introduce a collective agreement not to allow children to own smartphones up to and including sixth class. The primary objective of this voluntary code is to alleviate peer pressure and provide support to parents in managing their children's access to digital devices.
Voluntary Code:
The voluntary code aims to delay smartphone ownership during the primary school years, allowing children more time to develop resilience and coping mechanisms before being exposed to the full extent of the cyberworld. While the code remains optional, parents are encouraged to participate in the agreement to create a collective effort in reducing the pressure on young children to own smartphones.
The St. Kevin's code is set to be formally launched in September, and parents have been asked to sign up anonymously. Many parents have already expressed their support for the initiative, and approximately 85% of fourth class parents have opted to be part of the code.
The Department of Education has commended the decision by the school and has encouraged other primary schools to follow a similar stance.
In recent years, some primary and secondary schools in Ireland have implemented a system where student put their mobile phone into a pouch that restrict students from using their mobile phones throughout the school day. This measure is aimed at enhancing mobile phone safety and promoting better concentration in the classroom.
Is your school's mobile phone use policy suitable for its intended purpose?
Complete some research into who was involved in developing your schools mobile phone policy.
Decision-making and the roles of different groups with managing uniforms in schools
Decision-making and the roles of different groups with managing uniforms in schools
Research and Data:
A survey completed by TheJournal.ie suggests of those who took part in their survey 71.7% support the use of uniforms in schools. Whereas, 24.6% were against the use of uniforms in Irish schools.
In 2022, a youth forum convened in Ireland by the Minister of State for Sport proposed necessary changes to school uniform policies to encourage greater physical activity, especially among girls and young women. The report recommends adopting a "physical activity-friendly" approach to school uniforms, as strict and inflexible dress codes hinder students' engagement in physical activities. The findings are based on insights from 100 young people who participated in online and in-person meetings. Students expressed frustration over the limited time and scope of physical education activities, with a focus on major team sports. Additionally, the report highlights unequal attention and resources given to sports for women and girls compared to those played by boys. The report also notes issues around menstruation and the need for coaches to be more accommodating.
In Ireland and the UK, school uniforms are a common practice in both public and private schools, setting them apart from many other European countries where students are allowed to wear their own clothing. However, Educate Together schools in Ireland prioritise individuality and often allow students to choose their own attire. Similarly, democratic schools offer the option of wearing a uniform or not, with student input heavily influencing the uniform's design if chosen. Increasingly, schools in Ireland who are the process of updating their uniforms involves student council contributions to select a new design.
Despite varying approaches, the majority of schools in Ireland continue to advocate for the use of uniforms. School uniforms serve as a visible symbol of unity and belonging among students, generating discussions on their potential to instill discipline, address social inequalities, and create a focused learning environment. Yet, critics argue that uniforms may inhibit self-expression and individuality. Ultimately, the decision on adopting uniforms remains a significant aspect of each school's culture, shaping students' overall experience and fostering a sense of community.
Reasons for the rules:
A school uniform policy is designed to promote a sense of equality and unity among students. Many schools believe that wearing a uniform helps to reduce distractions and focus on learning. The uniform also helps to identify students as members of the school community, which can help to deter crime and antisocial behavior.
Benefits of the rules:
There are a number of benefits to having a school uniform policy. These include:
Reduced distractions: Studies have shown that students who wear uniforms are less likely to be distracted by their clothing, which can lead to improved academic performance.
Increased sense of community: Wearing a uniform can help to create a sense of community among students, as they all feel like they are part of something larger than themselves.
Reduced bullying: Some studies have shown that schools with uniform policies have lower rates of bullying. This is because uniforms help to reduce the focus on social status and appearance, which can be a trigger for bullying.
Drawbacks of the rules:
Cost: School uniforms can be expensive, which can be a burden for some families.
Loss of individuality: Some students may feel that they lose their individuality when they have to wear a uniform.
Inflexibility: Uniform policies can be inflexible, which can make it difficult for students to dress for different weather conditions or activities.
Striking the Balance: Debates and Perspectives on Rules in Schools
Striking the Balance: Debates and Perspectives on Rules in Schools
The need for rules in schools is a debated topic. Some people believe that rules are essential for creating a safe and orderly learning environment, while others believe that they stifle creativity and individuality. There are a number of arguments in favour of rules in schools. First, rules can help to keep students safe. For example, rules about bullying, fighting, and drug use can help to prevent students from being harmed. Second, rules can help to create a sense of order and predictability in the classroom. This can make it easier for students to learn and focus on their work. Third, rules can help to teach students about responsibility and accountability. When students know what is expected of them, they are more likely to behave in a responsible way.
However, there are also a number of arguments against rules in schools. First, some people believe that rules stifle creativity and individuality. They argue that students should be free to express themselves, even if it means breaking the rules. Second, some people believe that rules can be unfair. For example, they argue that rules about dress code can discriminate against students from different cultures or backgrounds. Third, some people believe that rules can be counterproductive. They argue that students are more likely to break the rules if they feel like they are being controlled.
The role of stakeholders in selecting school rules is also a complex issue. Some people believe that the rules should be decided by the school leadership, while others believe that students should have a say in the process.
The Impact of Arbitrary Enforcement in Schools
The Impact of Arbitrary Enforcement in Schools
Rules play a crucial role in maintaining order and safety within schools, while also instilling a sense of responsibility among students. However, a potential issue arises when those in power enforce rules arbitrarily, leading to unfair and inconsistent application. For instance, certain students may receive preferential treatment regarding dress code, while others face consequences for similar actions. Such arbitrary enforcement can breed feelings of inequality and frustration among students, eroding trust in authority figures and undermining the overall learning environment.
Keywords:
Arbitrarily: based on personal choice or whim, rather than on reason, rules, or principles
Norms: socially accepted rules or expectations that guide the behavior and interactions of individuals within a community or society. e.g. saying thank you when interacting with others orraising yuor hand in class to speak.
Values: core beliefs and principles that shape an individual's attitudes and guide their decision-making, reflecting what they consider important and meaningful. e.g. equality; treating all individuals with fairness
Empowering Students through Norms and Values
Empowering Students through Norms and Values
Setting norms and values plays a crucial role in maintaining a sense of order within a community, including schools. While enforcement of rules is essential, the power of self-management through established norms and values should not be underestimated. When individuals, including students, internalize these norms and values, they understand what is expected of them and willingly choose to abide by them. This creates a positive and self-regulating environment where individuals voluntarily behave in ways that align with the shared values of the community.
When norms and values are effectively set, they serve as a guiding compass for behavior, fostering a sense of responsibility, respect, and cooperation among students. Instead of merely adhering to rules out of fear of consequences, students are motivated to act in ways that reflect the positive values upheld by the school community. This intrinsic motivation to do the right thing, even when no one is watching, leads to more effective compliance and a sense of collective ownership over maintaining order and harmony.
In a school where norms and values are actively promoted, students develop a strong sense of identity as responsible members of the community. This sense of belonging and shared purpose creates a positive learning environment, encouraging students to engage in their studies and feel respected by their peers and teachers alike.
Key term: Political Identity
Key term: Political Identity
Political identity is how you see yourself in relation to a certain political group or ideology, and it shapes your beliefs and opinions about important issues.
Political identity is how you see yourself in relation to a certain political group or ideology, and it shapes your beliefs and opinions about important issues.
(Poitical identity should not be confused with the concept of identity politics; this is discussed in Strand 4 topic 7: globalisation)
(Poitical identity should not be confused with the concept of identity politics; this is discussed in Strand 4 topic 7: globalisation)
Activity:
Take a moment to consider these diverse viewpoints, and then examine the similarities and differences between them.
Different Perspectives
Different Perspectives
Within the study of politics and society we must acknowledge political identity is more complex than a simple left-wing or right-wing perspective, it is important to note that not all individuals within these groups will have common interests or beliefs. Below, you will find a suggested set of ideas related to rules in society and schools from both left-wing and right-wing perspectives.
Left-wing perspective on the need for rules in society and schools: Some individuals who identity as left-wing may argue that rules in society and schools should prioritise social justice, equality, and inclusivity. They believe that rules should be designed to protect the rights and well-being of all individuals, especially marginalised and vulnerable groups. In schools, left-wing advocates support rules that promote diversity, foster a safe and supportive environment for all students, and address systemic issues such as discrimination and inequality. They emphasize the importance of providing equitable opportunities for education and ensuring that rules do not disproportionately impact certain student populations.
Right-wing perspective on the need for rules in society and schools: Some individuals who identity as right-wing believe in the importance of rules to maintain law and order, individual responsibility, and traditional values. They argue that rules in society should prioritise personal freedom, limited government intervention, and protection of property rights. In schools, right-wing proponents advocate for rules that promote discipline, respect for authority, and adherence to traditional moral values. They emphasise the importance of instilling a sense of personal responsibility and work ethic among students and view strict enforcement of rules as necessary to create a focused and disciplined learning environment.
LO 2.1: the making of national policy
Before delving into the connection between power and decision-making in the context of national policy, it is essential to examine the different forms of government present both in Ireland and globally. It is crucial to acknowledge that even within democracies, power structures can vary significantly from one another. Additionally, some individuals reside in countries where democracy either doesn't exist or has faced challenges and setbacks.
Types of Government
Types of Government
There are many different types of government around the world, here some of the most common:
Autocracy is a form of government where all the power and authority are concentrated in the hands of a single individual or a small, unaccountable group, with little to no input from the general population.
Monarchies are governments in which a single ruler, known as a monarch, holds power. Monarchies can be either absolute, where the monarch has unlimited power, or constitutional, where the monarch's power is limited by a constitution. Some examples of monarchies include the United Kingdom, Japan, and Denmark.
Dictatorship is a repressive form of governance in which an individual or a small group exercises absolute control over a nation, suppressing dissent and limiting civil liberties. One modern-day example of dictatorship can be observed in North Korea, where the Kim family has maintained a grip on power for decades, using a cult of personality, censorship, and oppressive measures to maintain their rule and stifle any opposition.
Fascism: Fascism is an authoritarian and nationalistic ideology with dictatorial rule and strong suppression of dissent. While there are no current examples of purely fascist governments, historical examples include Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini.
Democracy
Democracies are governments in which the people hold power. This can be done through direct democracy, where the people vote on all laws and policies, or through representative democracy, where the people elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
Liberal democracies is a form of government where individual rights and freedoms are protected, and political power is exercised through elected representatives within a system of checks and balances. e.g. Ireland, Germany and France.
Illiberal democracies are countries that have some of the features of liberal democracies, such as free and fair elections, but they also have authoritarian characteristics, such as restrictions on freedom of speech and the rule of law e.g. Hungary, Poland and Turkey.
Oligarchy
An oligarchy is a system of government where power is concentrated in the hands of a small, privileged elite or ruling class. In a modern-day example, one can observe an oligarchic structure in Russia, where a select group of wealthy and politically influential individuals hold considerable control over key sectors of the economy and exert significant influence on governmental decisions and policies.
Communism
Communism is a socio-political ideology where the means of production are owned and controlled by the community, and a classless society is sought. Countries that have been or are governed by communist parties include China, with the Chinese Communist Party, and Cuba, with the Communist Party of Cuba.
Anarchy
Anarchy is a political philosphy characterized by the absence of a centralised authority or ruling body. In an anarchic system, there is no hierarchical structure or formal institutions to enforce laws, regulations, or public policies. Instead, individuals and communities govern themselves independently, relying on voluntary cooperation and consensus-based decision-making. No country in the world has anarchy as its formal form of government. However, certain areas affected by conflict and instability, like parts of Somalia and Syria, have experienced pockets of anarchy, where multiple armed groups vie for control, leading to lawlessness, violence, and a lack of basic services and governance.
Theocracy
A theocracy is a form of government where religious leaders or religious institutions hold political power and influence over the state's policies and decision-making processes. In a theocratic system, religious principles and beliefs are integrated into the governance, and the state's laws often align with the doctrines of the dominant religion e.g. Iran officially known as the Islamic Republic of Iran.
A refuge for anarchists: Christinania
Freetown Christiania, located in the heart of Copenhagen, Denmark, is a unique and autonomous community that stands as a beacon of alternative living and self-governance. Established in 1971, Christiania emerged when a group of hippies and activists occupied an abandoned military barracks, proclaiming it as a "Freetown" with its own set of rules and principles. The 'Freetown' claims to be separate to the Danish state and the European Union, however in reality it is still part of both.
What makes Christiania distinctive is its rejection of traditional societal norms and governmental control. The residents, known as "Christianites," have created a self-sustaining and eco-friendly society, emphasising communal living, artistic expression, and environmental consciousness. The community operates on a barter economy, and many buildings are constructed from recycled materials, fostering an environmentally conscious lifestyle.
Christiania is famous for its liberal stance on drug use, and "Pusher Street" was a well-known spot for the open sale of cannabis for many years. However, this aspect of the community has been a subject of controversy with Danish authorities, leading to periodic attempts to crack down on drug sales.
While Christiania exudes a spirit of freedom and creativity, its unconventional status has led to occasional conflicts with the Danish government. Over the years, there have been disputes about land ownership, drug-related issues, and clashes over the governance of the area. Nevertheless, the community has remained resilient, continuing to uphold its ideals of freedom, independence, and artistic expression, attracting visitors from around the world who are drawn to experience the alternative lifestyle and unique ambiance of Freetown Christiania.
Keywords:
Liberal democracy: A form of government where individual rights and freedoms are protected, and political power is exercised through elected representatives within a system of checks and balances.
Multiparty democracy: A political system in which multiple political parties compete in elections, and no single party has an absolute majority, often leading to coalition governments.
Eurocentric: A perspective or approach that is centered on or biased towards European culture, history, and values, often neglecting or marginalizing other non-European perspectives.
Francis Fukuyama on democracy
Francis Fukuyama on democracy
American key theorist Francis Fukuyama argues that the ideological battles of earlier eras are over, and that liberal democracy is now the dominant form of government.
He cites the 1989 revolutions in Eastern Europe, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the movement towards multiparty democracy in other regions as evidence of this. He argues that fewer people defend monarchism, fascism, or communism, and that capitalism has won in its long struggle with socialism.
Do you agree with Fukuyama?
Fukuyama's ideas have been met with both criticism and praise. Some people agree with him that liberal democracy is the best form of government, while others argue that it is not the only viable option. It is true that there is no major political movement today that is advocating for a return to monarchy, fascism, or communism. However, this does not mean that these ideologies have been completely defeated. They may still exist in some form, and they could potentially reemerge in the future.
It is also possible that new forms of government will emerge in the future. Just as the thinkers of medieval times could not have predicted the rise of industrial society, we cannot predict what the future holds. It is possible that new forms of economic, political, or cultural order will emerge that we cannot even imagine today.
Ultimately, whether or not Fukuyama is right about the end of history is a matter of debate.
Other things to consider:
Fukuyama's argument is based on the idea of progress. He believes that history is a process of continuous improvement, and that liberal democracy is the highest form of political organization that has yet been achieved.
Fukuyama's argument has been criticised for being too simplistic. Some people argue that there are other factors, such as culture and religion, that also play a role in determining the form of government that a country adopts.
Fukuyama's argument has also been criticised for being Eurocentric. Some people argue that he is only considering the history of Western Europe and the United States, and that he is ignoring the experiences of other parts of the world.
Francis Fukuyama
Keywords:
Human nature: Human nature refers to the inherent and fundamental characteristics, behaviors, and tendencies that are common to all human beings.
Pessimistic: Having a negative or gloomy outlook on life or a particular situation.
Central Authority: A governing body or person with significant power and control over a group or society.
Social Contract: An implicit or explicit agreement in which individuals give up some freedoms to form a society and be governed by its rules.
Authoritative System: A system of governance characterised by strict control and adherence to rules and commands from those in power.
Optimistic: Having a positive or hopeful view of life or a particular situation.
Individual Liberties: Personal freedoms and rights that are inherent to each person e.g. freedom of speech.
Personal Autonomy: The ability and right of an individual to make independent decisions and choices for oneself.
Thomas Hobbes & John Locke on power and decision-making
Thomas Hobbes & John Locke on power and decision-making
Key theorists Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were influential philosophers who held differing views on human nature and the need for rules in society.
Hobbes' perspective on human nature was pessimistic. He believed that humans are inherently selfish and driven by their own self-interests. In his famous work "Leviathan," he argued that without a strong central authority, life would be "nasty, brutish, and short." To prevent chaos and maintain order, Hobbes asserted the necessity of a social contract, where individuals willingly give up some of their freedoms in exchange for protection and security provided by a powerful ruler or government.
Hobbes would argue that rules are essential in schools to impose discipline and maintain order among students. He might advocate for a strict and authoritative system of rules, with clear consequences for those who break them. The school's authority figures, such as teachers and administrators, would play a crucial role in enforcing these rules to ensure a peaceful learning environment.
Contrary to Hobbes, John Locke had a more optimistic view of human nature. He believed that humans are born as "blank slates" and are shaped by their experiences and environment. If Locke was alive today he would emphasize the importance of rules in schools to protect individual rights and promote a fair and just learning environment. However, he would be more inclined towards rules that respect students' individual liberties and personal autonomy. He might advocate for rules that encourage open communication and cooperation between students and teachers, allowing students to have a say in shaping certain aspects of the school's rules and policies.
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
Different Perspectives
Explaining the popularity of liberal democracy
The surge in the popularity of liberal democracy can be attributed to various factors. One frequently cited reason is that alternative forms of political rule have been tried and proven unsuccessful, thereby establishing democracy as the most effective political system. However, this explanation alone does not fully account for the recent waves of democratisation. Other compelling arguments for the appeal of democracy have emerged, shedding light on its widespread acceptance.
Firstly, democracy is often associated with a market economy, which has demonstrated superior effectiveness compared to communism as a wealth-generating system. Communism's inefficiencies and lack of competitiveness in economic management and planning have made the market economy more attractive.
Secondly, the process of globalisation has significantly impacted people's lives, with events happening far away exerting influence on local communities. This has prompted individuals to demand greater transparency and information about their governing systems, leading to an increased push for democracy. As ideas and perspectives spread across national borders, citizens become more engaged and active in advocating for democratic principles.
Thirdly, the advent of mass media, particularly modern platforms like the internet, social media, and television, has played a significant role in fostering the spread of democracy. The accessibility of global events through these media channels has sparked a chain reaction, inspiring individuals to seek democratic ideals. Governments' attempts to control information dissemination have been challenged by these technologies, providing people with diverse perspectives from around the world.
Keywords:
Market economy: An economic system where the production and distribution of goods and services are determined by the forces of supply and demand in a free market, with minimal government intervention.
Globalisation: The process of increasing interconnectedness and integration of economies, cultures, and societies worldwide through the flow of goods, services, information, technology, and people.
Mass media: Forms of communication, such as television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, that reach a large audience and have the potential to influence public opinion and disseminate information widely.
Illiberal democracies: Political systems in which elected leaders hold power, but institutions and freedoms that safeguard individual rights and promote pluralism are weakened or under threat.
Authoritarian characteristics: Traits or features associated with authoritarian regimes, such as centralised power, limited political freedoms, suppression of dissent, and strict control over society.
Judiciary: The branch of government responsible for interpreting laws, ensuring their constitutionality, and settling disputes through the legal system.
Loyalists: Individuals who demonstrate unwavering support and allegiance to a person, group, government, or cause.
The Rise of Illiberal Democracies
In recent years, there has been a growing concern about the rise of illiberal democracies around the world. Illiberal democracies are countries that have some of the features of liberal democracies, such as free and fair elections, but they also have authoritarian characteristics, such as restrictions on freedom of speech and the rule of law.
Some of the countries that have been identified as illiberal democracies include the United States, Poland, and Hungary. In the United States, there have been concerns about the erosion of democratic norms under former President Donald Trump. Trump attacked the media, undermined the independence of the judiciary, and sought to limit the power of Congress.
In Poland, the government of President Andrzej Duda has been accused of undermining the rule of law and restricting freedom of speech. Duda has appointed loyalists to key positions in the judiciary, and he has passed laws that make it more difficult for independent media to operate.
In Hungary, the government of Prime Minister Viktor Orbán has been criticised for its authoritarian tendencies. Orbán has consolidated power in his own hands, and he has passed laws that restrict freedom of speech and the media.
There are a number of factors that have contributed to the rise of illiberal democracies. One factor is the rise of populism, which has led to a decline in trust in traditional institutions, such as the media and the judiciary. Another factor is the increasing influence of money in politics, which has made it easier for wealthy individuals and interest groups to buy influence.
For some the rise of illiberal democracies is a worrying trend, the UN'S High Commissioner for Human Rights, Volker Türk has stated an increase in support for populist political parties and anti-freedom or rights movements throughout the world is having the most impact on refugees, women and the LGBTIQ+ community.
National Policy
A national policy is a set of principles and guidelines that are developed by a government to achieve a particular goal. National policies can be related to a wide range of topics, such as education, healthcare, social welfare, the environment and the economy.
In Ireland, there are a number of national policies that are relevant to the lives of young people. These include:
National Anti-Bullying Strategy 2013-2023: This strategy aims to prevent bullying and to support those who have been affected by bullying. It includes a number of measures to raise awareness of bullying, to promote positive relationships, and to provide support to victims of bullying.
National Traveller and Roma Inclusion Strategy 2017-2022: This strategy aims to improve the lives of Traveller and Roma people in Ireland. It includes a number of measures to address discrimination, to promote education and employment, and to improve access to healthcare and other services.
Not all policies are specific to young people, the government also develops policies which are specific to many groups within society such as the Climate Action Plan 2023 which asks people and groups from across society to take responsiblity to tackling both national and global environmental breakdown.
Can you think of other policies produced by the government that are specific to young people and those that are not?
Case Study: Child and Family Agency Act 2013
Case Study: Child and Family Agency Act 2013
How policies are created in Ireland:
Policy formulation: The first step is to identify the need for a new policy. This can be done in a number of ways, such as through research, consultation with stakeholders, or by responding to a political or social issue.
Policy development: Once the need for a new policy has been identified, the next step is to develop the policy itself. This involves setting out the objectives of the policy, the key actions that will be taken to achieve these objectives, and the resources that will be required.
Policy approval: Once the policy has been developed, it needs to be approved by the government. This is usually done by TDs in Dáil Éireann, however the government may refer the issue to Seanad Éireann to discuss and debate the policy prior to approval.
Policy implementation: Once the policy has been approved, it needs to be implemented. This involves putting the policy into practice and ensuring that it is being delivered effectively.
Policy evaluation: The final step is to evaluate the policy. This involves assessing whether the policy has achieved its objectives and whether it is being delivered effectively.
The Child and Family Agency Act 2013 came about as a result of a number of factors, including:
The need for a more coordinated approach to child protection and family support: In the early 2010s, there was a growing recognition that the existing child protection system in Ireland was fragmented and inefficient. There were a number of different agencies responsible for different aspects of child protection and family support, and there was a lack of coordination between these agencies. This made it difficult to ensure that children and families were getting the support they needed.
The publication of the Ryan Report: In 2009, the Ryan Report was published. This report investigated the abuse of children in residential institutions in Ireland over a period of 70 years. The report found that the abuse was widespread and that the authorities had failed to protect children from harm. The report made a number of recommendations, including the need for a new, independent child protection agency.
The political will to reform the child protection system: In the wake of the Ryan Report, there was a political will to reform the child protection system in Ireland. The government committed to establishing a new, independent child protection agency, and the Child and Family Agency Act 2013 was passed as a result of this commitment.
The Child and Family Agency Act 2013 established Tusla - the Child and Family Agency (launched on January 1st, 2014) which is the main child protection and family support agency in Ireland. Tusla has a number of functions, including:
Providing services to children and families who are at risk of harm: This includes providing early intervention services, such as family support services, and providing care and protection services, such as foster care and residential care.
Investigating allegations of child abuse and neglect: Tusla is responsible for investigating all allegations of child abuse and neglect in Ireland.
Providing advice and support to other agencies and professionals who work with children and families: Tusla provides advice and support to other agencies and professionals who work with children and families, such as the Garda Síochána and the Department of Education and Skills.
The Child and Family Agency Act 2013 was a significant piece of legislation that has had a major impact on the child protection system in Ireland.
Case Study: Climate Action Plan 2023
Case Study: Climate Action Plan 2023
What is the impact of European and global institutions on national policies?
Both EU and UN policy has a significant role in shaping Ireland's Climate Action Plan 2023. For example, the EU has set ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and Ireland is required to meet these targets as part of its membership of the EU.
The EU's climate policy is driven by the following:
The Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is an international agreement that was adopted in 2015. The agreement's goal is to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
The European Green Deal: The European Green Deal is a set of policy initiatives that are designed to make the EU climate neutral by 2050.
The European Climate Law: The European Climate Law is a piece of legislation that was adopted in 2021. The law sets out a legally binding target for the EU to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030.
The ongoing climate crisis is a global issue that is having a significant impact on Ireland and the wider world. The country is already experiencing the effects of climate change, such as more frequent and severe flooding, hotter summers, and more extreme weather events. If we do not take action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the effects of climate change will become even more severe. The climate crisis will negatively impact all members of our society not just young people, it will impact our biodiversity and our economy.
Ireland's Climate Action Plan 2023 is necessary to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change. The plan sets out a number of ambitious targets, including:
Halving greenhouse gas emissions by 2030: This is a legally binding target that was set by the Climate Act 2021.
Reaching net zero emissions by 2050: This is a more ambitious target that is being pursued by many countries around the world.
The climate action plan is being implemented through a number of different measures, including:
Investing in renewable energy: Ireland is investing in renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
Improving energy efficiency: We are also improving energy efficiency in our homes, businesses, and transport system to reduce the amount of energy we use.
Changing our behaviour: We need to change our behavior to reduce our carbon footprint. This means making changes to the way we travel, the way we heat our homes, and the way we consume goods and services.
You can learn more about this and climate change in Strand 4.
Document: Climate Action Plan 2023
Video: European Green Deal
Video: The Paris Agreement
Website: How are laws made in Ireland
LO 2.2: how the executive branch of government is selected
In this section, we will examine the executive branches of government in Ireland, Northern Ireland, and the European Union (EU). We will delve into the roles and responsibilities of their respective institutions and observe the processes by which their governments are chosen.
Bunreacht na hÉireann (the Constitution of Ireland) outlines the system of government in Ireland and the rights we have as Irish citizens.
The Irish state is divided into three separate branches
(1) Legislative
(2) Executive
(3) Judicial
The structure is based on the separation of powers which means that no single part of the government should have absolute power without adequate checks and balances by the other parts.
In Ireland, the head of state is the President, and the head of government is the Taoiseach.
Keywords
Keywords
A constitution is a legal document that contains the fundamental laws and principles by which a state is governed.
State refers to a structured political community that resides under a single system of government.
Separation of powers means that no single part of the government should have absolute power.
Checks and balances means that no single part of government should have absolute power.
The separation of powers and the role of each branch of the Irish government is clearly outlined in the Constitution of Ireland. Article 15 to 27: gives power to the national government. The Oireachtas is made up of Dáil Éireann, Seanad Éireann and Uachtarán na hÉireann (the President).
Legislative power: the power to make laws, i.e. to introduce, remove or change legislation. Article 28 gives power to the government (the Taoiseach, the Tánaiste and the Cabinet of Minsters.
Executive power: is the power to carry laws into effect, i.e. to carry out the laws with assistance of police force, a military force and the civil service.
Judicial power: is the power to interpret and apply the law to disputes and conflicts that arise between the state and individual citizens or disputes between citizens. Articles 34 to 37 outline the power of the courts.
Checks and Balances
Checks and Balances
The Supreme Court (judicial branch) can declare a law passed by the Oireachtas (legislative branch) to be unconstitutional. If the Supreme Court declares a law unconstitutional, the law must be amended or removed completely. The Supreme Court also has the power to declare that a minister (from the executive branch) has exceeded or bused their powers or did not follow a legal procedure properly.
The Oireachtas (legislative branch) makes the law. The courts cannot create laws: they can only decide whether the law is compatible with the constitution. Judges cannot overturn a law just because they disagree with it. The Oireachtas monitors and holds account the government (executive branch) for its actions. The parliament (Dáil) does this through a series of powers including posing questions which the Taoiseach and Ministers must answer. The Oireachtas can also remove the Taoiseach and Minister by passing a ‘motion of no confidence’.
This system has its challenges: the constitution allows members of the government (executive) to also be members of the Oireachtas (legislative). For example, the Minister of Education is also a member of the parliament (Dáil).
Party Whip System
Party Whip System
Members of parliament (Dáil Eireann) must vote in the same way as their political party or risk being expelled. This is known as the party whip system.
The party whip system ensures that all members of the legislative branch who are member of the governing party will remain loyal to the government position.
The threat of expulsion from the party acts as a strong disincentive to ever vote against party policy, and this ensures that the government retains its majority in the Oireachtas.
What is the Oireachtas?
What is the Oireachtas?
The Oireachtas is the law-making (legislative) branch of government in Ireland.
The Oireachtas is made up of three parts:
The Ceann Comhairle is the chairperson of Dáil Éireann. The person is elected by members of the Dáil following a general election. When the Ceann Comhairle is unavailable; Leas Cheann Comhairle will undertake proceedings.
Role and responsibilities:
Calls on politicians to speak.
All speeches must be addressed to the Ceann Comhairle.
Puts questions to the house and supervises and declares the results of divisions.
Has authority to suppress disorder.
To ensure obedience to their rulings the Ceann Comhairle may order members
to withdraw from the Dáil or suspend an individual from the House for a period.
How we vote in Ireland
How we vote in Ireland
In Ireland, citizens get to vote who represents them within the three institutions of the Oireachtas: Dáil Éireann, Seanad Éireann (limited voting rights) and the President of Ireland.
Dáil Éireann
TDs are directly elected by citizens ages 18 or over during a general election.
General elections must take place every five years, according to Irish law. Ireland is divided into electoral areas known as constituencies. Currently, there are 40 constituencies.
Factors that influence how we vote
Factors that influence how we vote
PR-STV System
PR-STV System
In Ireland, we use a voting system known as Proportional Representation by Single Transferable Vote (PR-STV). We use this method during General Elections and Local and European Elections.
Ireland and Malta are the only two countries to currently make use of this system.
Under PR-STV, voters rank candidates in order of preference rather than casting a single vote for a single candidate. Constituencies are typically multi-seat, and candidates must reach a specific quota of votes to be elected.
The counting process involves the distribution of surplus votes from successful candidates and the transfer of votes from eliminated candidates. This transfer of votes allows for a more accurate reflection of voter preferences and helps to ensure that a broad range of political views is represented.
PR-STV encourages candidates to appeal to a diverse range of voters as they seek to secure transfers from supporters of eliminated candidates. This system also allows for a higher level of voter choice, as voters can rank candidates from different parties, thereby allowing for a more nuanced representation of political preferences.
Overall, PR-STV in Ireland promotes proportional representation, encourages a diverse political landscape, and emphasizes voter choice and preferences in the electoral process.
FPTP: Alternative voting system
FPTP: Alternative voting system
FPTP stands for "First-Past-The-Post," a simple electoral system used in the UK and USA to elect representatives. In this system, each geographical constituency elects one representative, and the candidate who receives the most votes wins, regardless of whether they secured an outright majority. It is called "First-Past-The-Post" because it emphasises the candidate who comes first in the vote count.
Arguments for:
FPTP is a simple system to understand and administer. This makes it an attractive option for countries with large electorates or limited resources.
FPTP usually produces a clear winner in elections. This can provide stability in government, as the winning party will have a majority of seats in parliament. This can make it easier for the government to pass legislation and implement its policies.
FPTP can be more efficient to count the votes than PSTV. This is because the votes only need to be counted once, and there is no need to transfer votes according to the voters' preferences.
Arguments against:
FPTP can be less representative of the popular vote than PSTV. This is because the party with the most votes in a constituency wins all the seats, even if they do not have a majority of the votes. This can mean that a party with a large minority of the votes can win all the seats in a constituency, while a party with a smaller majority of the votes can win no seats.
FPTP can disadvantage smaller parties. This is because smaller parties are less likely to win a majority of votes in a constituency, and therefore they are less likely to win any seats. This can make it difficult for smaller parties to have a voice in government.
Tactical voting is voting for a party that you do not necessarily support in order to prevent another party from winning. This can happen under FPTP if a voter believes that their preferred party does not have a chance of winning in their constituency. This can lead to the election of a party that does not have the support of the majority of voters.
After the 2016 Brexit referendum and recent general elections in the UK, there has been ongoing debate among British electoral reform campaigners regarding the potential adoption of PR-STV. Nevertheless, it appears that, for the time being, the UK will stick with the current FPTP system. Some opponents of adopting an alternative system point to Ireland as an example, where PR-STV has led to the formation of weaker coalition governments. On the other hand, proponents argue that a similar system could bring more diverse voices into the UK's House of Parliament, fostering greater representation.
Should we change how we select seantors into the Seanad?
Should we change how we select seantors into the Seanad?
Seanad Éireann
Seanad Éireann
Some argue the Seanad needs to be abolished or reformed. In 2013, a referendum was held on whether to abolish the Seanad. The referendum was defeated, but it highlighted the ongoing debate about the role of the Seanad in Irish politics. The government promised to reform the Seanad and multiple ideas and papers have been put forward to make changes. As of 2023, there have been no changes to the Seanad, however the Supreme Court has argued for a review.
Argument 1: The Seanad is undemocratic
The Seanad is not directly elected by the people, which has led to some debate about its role and effectiveness. Some people argue that the Seanad is an outdated institution that is no longer necessary. They point out that the Seanad has no power to veto legislation passed by the Dáil, and that its members are often appointed by the government, which gives them a vested interest in supporting the government's policies.
Argument 2: The Seanad is important
Others argue that the Seanad plays an important role in the Irish political system. They point out that the Seanad can provide a more considered and deliberative forum for debate than the Dáil, and that its members can bring a range of expertise and experience to the legislative process. In 2013, a referendum was held on whether to abolish the Seanad. The referendum was defeated, but it highlighted the ongoing debate about the role of the Seanad in Irish politics.
Argument 2: The Seanad needs reform
It is important to keep the Seanad as it would be unfair to allow the Dail make all of the decisions without extensive debate and discussion on important issues and bills. However, the Seanad needs reform especially in who we select senators.
Is it possible to abolish a Senate?
Is it possible to abolish a Senate?
New Zealand and Denmark have both abolished their senates. In New Zealand, the Senate was abolished in 1993, following a referendum. In Denmark, the Senate was abolished in 1953, when the Danish constitution was revised.
The reasons for abolishing the senates in these countries vary. In New Zealand, the Senate was seen as an undemocratic institution that was dominated by wealthy landowners.
In Denmark, the Senate was seen as an obstacle to the efficient running of government.
The debate about the role of the Seanad in Ireland is likely to continue for some time.
There are strong arguments on both sides of the debate, and it is ultimately up to the Irish people to decide whether the Seanad should be retained or abolished.
Case Study: Lowering the voting age in Ireland
Case Study: Lowering the voting age in Ireland
Austria and Malta stand out in Europe for having one of the lowest national voting ages at 16 years. Following closely is Greece, where the voting age is 17, while in most other countries including Ireland, it remains at 18. In Ireland, there have been several discussions and proposals regarding the possibility of lowering the voting age to either 16 or 17 years old. There are many arguments put forward as to whether to lower the voting age or not. In 2013, the Constitutional Convention recommended that the voting age be reduced to 16 years old.
Arguments in favor of lowering the voting age
Young people are more politically engaged than ever before. A 2018 survey by the Irish Youth Council found that 70% of young people in Ireland are interested in politics. This is up from 56% in 2014.
Young people are more likely to be affected by the decisions of government. Issues such as climate change, education, and employment have a significant impact on young people. Giving young people a vote would give them a say in the decisions that affect their lives.
Lowering the voting age would help to increase voter turnout. Voter turnout in Ireland has been declining in recent years. Lowering the voting age could help to increase voter turnout by engaging young people in the political process.
Arguments against lowering the voting age
Some people argue that young people are not mature enough to vote. They argue that young people may not have the knowledge or experience to make informed decisions about who to vote for.
Others argue that lowering the voting age would give an unfair advantage to younger voters. They argue that younger voters are more likely to be influenced by their peers and by social media. This could lead to a situation where younger voters are more likely to vote for a particular party or candidate simply because their friends are voting for them.
There is also concern that lowering the voting age would lead to a decline in the quality of political debate. Some people argue that young people are less likely to be interested in the details of political issues. This could lead to a situation where political debates are dominated by soundbites and slogans, rather than by a serious discussion of the issues.
The debate about lowering the voting age in Ireland was discussed extensively at government level in 2022, however a final decision has been delayed until 2023. It has been suggested Ireland will aim look at lowering the age to 16 for all elections in Ireland. Ultimately, the decision of whether or not to lower the voting age is a political one that will need to be made through a referendum.
Lowering the voting age in Austria
In 2007, Austria became the first member of the European Union to adopt a voting age of 16 for most purposes. The voting age had been reduced in Austria from 19 to 18 at all levels in 1992. At that time a voting age of 16 was proposed by the Green Party, but was not adopted. Following the 2006 general election the coalition partners the SPÖ-ÖVP announced the voting age would be lowered the following year. At the 2008 Austrian general election – the first at the national level at which 16-year olds were allowed to vote – the reported turnout of first-time voters was 88%.
In 2016, the European Parliament passed a resolution calling for a lower voting age throughout the EU. By 2018, an amendment to the European electoral law was adopted to this effect, which includes a general recommendation to lower the voting age. However, these changes now have to be ratified by the individual member states. Also the Council of Europe urged its member countries to allow teenagers to vote starting at age 16.
In response, certain countries have taken action to decrease their voting age, particularly in regional or local elections. For instance, in 2023, Belgium made the decision to lower its voting age to 16, allowing the first group of 16-year-olds to cast their votes in the upcoming 2024 European Local Elections.
LO 2.3: social class and gender as important social categories
Social class and gender are two significant social categories that play crucial roles in shaping individuals' experiences, opportunities, and outcomes in society. These categories are central to understanding how power, privilege, and inequality operate, influencing access to resources, education, healthcare, and overall life chances.
Social class refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals based on their economic and social standing, while gender delineates the socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations attributed to individuals based on their perceived biological sex. Examining the intersections of social class and gender sheds light on the complex and interconnected ways in which individuals navigate their lives and interact within diverse social contexts. This exploration is essential for fostering awareness, addressing disparities, and striving for a more equitable and inclusive society.
Key term: Social Stratification
Key term: Social Stratification
This is the idea people are divided into different hierarchies, where some are deemed more important (and have more power) than others. For example: Social class, gender, ethnicity and age
Society is inherently stratified into distinct groups based on wealth and power, namely the working class, middle class, and upper class.
The working class comprises individuals engaged in manual labour or service industries, often earning wages and facing financial challenges. The middle class consists of professionals, managers, or small business owners with a comfortable standard of living. In contrast, the upper class encompasses the wealthiest individuals, benefiting from significant financial resources, elite education, and luxurious lifestyles.
A country's level of development significantly influences social class dynamics, with economic growth, industrialization, education, and resource accessibility all shaping class distinctions. Although some may view Irish society as classless, economic growth has unveiled clear instances of social stratification, income disparities, educational gaps, and unequal access to resources.
Certain political theorists believe that examining social class is crucial as it significantly affects an individual's opportunities in life. Disparities in health, life expectancy, education outcomes, and access to resources are often evident between higher and lower income groups in society. Individuals with lower incomes tend to face disadvantages in areas such as housing, healthcare, education, nutrition, and social inclusion.
Keywords:
Capitalism: An economic system where private individuals or businesses own and operate the production and distribution of goods and services for profit.
Proletariat: The working class, who sell their labour to the bourgeoisie and do not own the means of production.
Means of production: The resources, tools, machinery, and facilities used in the production of goods and services.
Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class, typically consisting of wealthy business owners and individuals who control the means of production in society.
Exploitation: The act of taking unfair advantage of others, often in terms of labour, resources, or power, for one's benefit, without offering equitable compensation or benefits.
Alienation: A feeling of disconnection or separation that individuals experience from the products of their labour, the work process, or their own humanity, often associated with modern industrialised societies.
Class conflict: The clash or struggle between different social classes, especially between the working class (proletariat) and the capitalist class (bourgeoisie), over issues like resources, wealth distribution, and workers' rights.
Status quo: The existing state of affairs or the current situation, often implying resistance to change and the preservation of existing social, economic, or political arrangements.
Karl Marx on social class
Karl Marx on social class
German key theorist Karl Marx's work is still relevant in the discussion of capitalism and social class because it provides a powerful critique of the capitalist system and its inherent contradictions. Marx argued that capitalism is a system of exploitation, in which the working class (the proletariat) is forced to sell their labour power to the wealthy class (the bourgeoisie) in order to survive. This system of exploitation leads to alienation, as the workers are not able to control their own work or the products of their labor.
Marx also argued that capitalism is a system of class conflict. The bourgeoisie, the owners of the means of production, have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo, while the proletariat has a vested interest in overthrowing the system. This class conflict is ultimately what will lead to the downfall of capitalism, as the proletariat will eventually become too powerful to be exploited any longer.
While Marx's predictions about the downfall of capitalism have not come to pass, his work remains a valuable resource for understanding the dynamics of capitalism and social class.
Marx's concept of alienation is still used to describe the feelings of powerlessness and estrangement that many workers experience in capitalist societies.
Marx's analysis of the contradictions of capitalism has been used to explain the economic crises that have periodically plagued capitalist economies.
Marx's prediction of a class revolution has been used to understand the rise of socialist and communist movements throughout the world.
While Marx's work is not without its critics, it remains a powerful and influential framework for understanding capitalism and social class.
Karl Marx
Key term: Capitalism
Key term: Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system in which private actors own and control property in accord with their interests, and demand and supply freely set prices in markets in a way that can serve the best interests of society.
Karl Marx and the 21st Century
Karl Marx and the 21st Century
If key theorist Karl Marx were alive in the present day, how might he analyze and interpret the events and trends of the 21st century?
Marx would likely analyze the impact of advanced technology e.g. artificial intellegence and automation on the workforce. He might explore how automation is affecting workers' jobs, job security, and the potential for increased alienation as machines replace human labour. Marx would surely criticise the globalisation of the economy, especially due to the exploitation of workers in developing countries. In places like South East Asia, factories cater to the demands of wealthy developed nations, often resulting in poor workers' rights and low wages. Additionally, Marx would strongly denounce capitalist neoliberalism, a system that favours the rich while neglecting others and promotes market deregulation. This has led to a widening global wealth gap, with the richest 1% possessing more than half of the world's wealth, leaving the bottom 50% with less than 1%. The scale of inequality is such that the richest 1% have more wealth than the entire bottom 90% combined. Though Marx was not particularly focused on environmental issues, he would likely link the climate crisis to capitalist neoliberalism and advocate for radical economic changes to address today's environmental challenges. Notably, a study by the Carbon Majors Database revealed that 100 companies, mainly fossil fuel producers like Shell, BP, Exxon Mobil, and Total, were responsible for 71% of global industrial greenhouse gas emissions since 1988.
What other different viewpoints might Karl Marx have about the 21st century if he were alive today?
Robert Nozick
Nozick on social class and inequality
Nozick on social class and inequality
American key theorist Robert Nozick's argued that social class and inequality are the result of individual choices and actions. Nozick's view of social class and inequality is based on his theory of entitlement. He argued that people are entitled to what they have if they acquired it through just means. For example through their hardwork, gifts or inhertance and people are entitled to what they would have acquired if they had not been subjected to injustice.
Nozick advocated for the concept of a minimal state, arguing that the government's role should be limited to protecting individual rights and enforcing contracts without extensive interference in people's personal lives and economic affairs. Nozick argued that the government should not redistribute wealth or income, as this would violate people's entitlements. He believed that the best way to reduce inequality is to create a system of free markets and limited government. Such ideas are associated with libertarianism.
An alternative viewpoint to Nozick's ideas is the concept of welfare states, where governments provide support to individuals facing inequality and low income, a popular approach in Ireland and various European countries. Key theorist John Rawls did not agree with many of the ideas put forward by Nozick.
Keywords:
Entitlement: The right or claim an individual has to receive certain benefits or privileges based on specific criteria or circumstances.
Just means: Fair and reasonable methods or resources used to achieve a particular goal or end, ensuring fairness and equity in distribution.
Welfare States: Countries or systems where the government provides extensive social welfare programs and services to support citizens in areas like healthcare, education, and financial assistance.
Minimal State: a concept advocating for a government with limited intervention, primarily focused on protecting individual rights and enforcing contracts.
Redistributive Wealth: The process of transferring wealth or income from wealthier individuals or groups to those with lower incomes or fewer resources to achieve greater economic equality.
Free markets: An economic system characterized by minimal government intervention and regulation, allowing the forces of supply and demand to determine prices and the allocation of resources.
Limited Government: A political philosophy advocating for a government with constrained powers and limited involvement in citizens' lives and economic affairs.
Libertarianism: A political ideology emphasising individual freedom, personal autonomy, and minimal government intervention in both social and economic matters.
Kathleen Lynch
Equality of Condition:
Lynch thinks the government should do more to make society fairer and reduce inequality. She criticizes Ireland for not enforcing equality laws effectively. Lynch argues that laws like the 1998 Employment Equality Act and the 2000 Equal Status Acts only aim to provide equal opportunities, not to make people's lives more equal in terms of income and support. She believes in a principle called "equality of condition," which means making sure people have roughly equal living conditions, not just equal chances to become unequal. She also believes that when the government tries to address inequality, powerful groups that resist change influence their decisions.
In education, Lynch says we need to consider the connection between the government, the economy, and society. She thinks we should take a more comprehensive approach to make schools truly fair for everyone.
Lynch on social class and inequality
Lynch on social class and inequality
Kathleen Lynch is a leading Irish theorist on social class and inequality, with a particular focus on education.
One of Lynch's key insights is that education plays a central role in reproducing social class inequality. She argues that the education system is biased in favor of students from wealthier backgrounds, and that this bias is evident in everything from curriculum design to assessment practices. As a result, students from working-class backgrounds are more likely to experience educational disadvantage and less likely to achieve their full potential.
Lynch also argues that inequality is not simply a matter of economic disparities. She argues that social class also shapes people's access to social and cultural resources, such as housing, healthcare, and employment opportunities. This means that people from working-class backgrounds are more likely to experience social exclusion and disadvantage.
Lynch's work is important because it challenges the myth that social class is simply a matter of individual merit or circumstance. She shows that social class is a product of social and economic structures, and that these structures can be difficult to overcome. Her work is also important because it provides a framework for understanding the ways in which inequality and social class intersect with other forms of disadvantage, such as gender, race, and ethnicity.
Her work is important to the discussion of inequality for a number of reasons:
She has a deep understanding of the complex and interconnected factors that contribute to inequality, including class, gender, disability, race, and ethnicity.
She is a strong advocate for social justice and believes that everyone should have equal opportunities to thrive, regardless of their background.
Her work is both rigorous and accessible, making it valuable to academics, policymakers, and the general public alike.
One of Lynch's key contributions to the discussion of inequality is her concept of "affective equality." Affective equality refers to the equal recognition and respect of all people, regardless of their social or economic status. Lynch argues that affective equality is essential for achieving social justice, as it creates a foundation on which other forms of equality, such as educational and economic equality, can be built.
Another important aspect of Lynch's work is her focus on the role of education in perpetuating inequality. Lynch argues that the Irish education system is biased in favor of students from wealthier backgrounds, and that this bias contributes to the reproduction of social class inequality. She calls for a number of reforms to the education system, including increased funding for disadvantaged schools and the introduction of more inclusive curricula.
Lynch's work has had a significant impact on the discussion of inequality in Ireland. Her research has informed policy and practice, and her writing has helped to raise public awareness of the issue. She is a leading voice in the fight for a more just and equitable society.
How does social class significantly impact an individuals life chances
How does social class significantly impact an individuals life chances
Social class is a critical issue that presents challenges within Irish society and significantly impacts an
In terms of education, key theorist Kathleen Lynch observes how social institutions such as education reproduce economic inequality. For instance, in 2019, 28 of the top 40 schools in Ireland were fee-paying schools, with many of these schools supported by state funding. This increases the likelihood of economically advantaged individuals gaining access to further education, highlighting the stark social divide that exists. A report by the Higher Education Authority (HEA) shows that the proportion of DEIS students at Trinity and UCD is below 5%, indicating the difficulty of eliminating the competitiveness of the most advantaged. Key theorist Karl Marx argued that capitalist society reproduces greater outcomes for those who hold significant economic and social power, which is evident in the education system. Additionally, more affluent students can afford additional support such as grinds, which allows them to gain better results and possibly enter third level. Furthermore, economic inequality has a significant impact on an individual's participation in society, as illustrated by a 2017 report by Barnardo’s on back-to-school costs for low-income households. The cost of returning to secondary school is €775 on average, but low-income families can only receive an allowance of €250 to help with the cost. This allowance does not even meet half the costs involved, forcing poorer parents into debt and increasing poverty and marginalisation.
In terms of crime, as Senator Lynn Ruane contends that working-class communities are punished for a system they had little real control over. For example, the majority of the current cohort of Irish prisoners have never completed their junior cycle or leaving certificate exams, and over half left school before the age of fifteen. The links between social class and crime are evident here, with young people living in economically deprived communities more likely to engage in delinquent behavior and tend to cease from crime later than those living in more affluent areas. Additionally, prisoners in Ireland were twenty-five times more likely to come from deprived communities, and many argue that white-collar crime is largely underreported.
In terms of income inequality, it continues to increase in Ireland, where the gap between the richest and the most disadvantaged is widening. TASC reports from 2015 and 2017 indicate increases in unequally distributed incomes, with the top 10% potentially holding more than half of Ireland’s wealth. The lowest income groups have only 12% of the wealth, impacting disposable income and access to housing, car ownership, and saving. The 1% increased their income from 10% to 12% by 2017, perpetuating a trend where the wealthiest take an increasing share of society’s income. The legal minimum wage is €11.30, far less than the required living wage of €13.85, further highlighting the impact of income inequality. The cost of living in Ireland is 20% more expensive than the EU average, indicating the urgent need for economic equality in Irish society. With the recent cost of living crisis Ireland is ranked alongside Switzerland, Iceland, Norway and Luxembourg as some of the most costly countries to live in, in 2023.
In conclusion, social class is a pervasive issue in Irish society that produces challenges in education, crime, and income. Key theorists like Kathleen Lynch and Karl Marx have provided insightful perspectives on this topic. To address this issue, we need to address economic inequality, provide greater access to resources, and create a more economically equal society in Ireland.
Complete some research on how social class influences healthcare and housing in Ireland, demonstrating its substantial effect on an individual's opportunities and well-being.
Special Report: The Dominance of the Richest 1%
Special Report: The Dominance of the Richest 1%
In 2023, Oxfam International released a report revealing that the wealthiest 1 percent acquired nearly two-thirds of the new wealth worth $42 trillion created since 2020, while the remaining 99 percent of the world's population received only half of that. The report emphasises the need to tax the super-rich and big corporations as a solution to the current crises, debunking the notion that tax cuts for the wealthy benefit everyone.
During the pandemic and post-2020 cost-of-living crisis, billionaires saw an extraordinary increase in their wealth, with $26 trillion (63 percent) of new wealth going to the richest 1 percent and $16 trillion (37 percent) to the rest of the world combined. A billionaire gained roughly $1.7 million for every $1 earned by a person in the bottom 90 percent. Additionally, billionaire fortunes surged by $2.7 billion each day, following a decade of historic gains, with the number and wealth of billionaires doubling over the past ten years.
John Rawls
Rawls on social class and inequality
Rawls on social class and inequality
John Rawls, an American philosopher, argued that social class and inequality are unjust, and that the government has a responsibility to reduce them. Rawls' view of social class and inequality is based on his theory of justice as fairness.
He believed that a just society is one in which everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed, regardless of their social class or background. This is known as the difference principle.
The difference principle states that inequalities are only justified if they benefit the least advantaged members of society. This means that the government should only redistribute wealth or income if it does so in a way that helps the poor and disadvantaged.
Rawls argued that the difference principle is the only principle of justice that is fair to everyone. He believed that it is unfair to allow people to be born into wealthy families and have a head start in life, while others are born into poverty and have a much harder time succeeding.
Rawls proposed the concept of the veil of ignorance as a way to think about what a just society would look like. The veil of ignorance is a thought experiment in which people are asked to imagine that they are choosing the principles of justice for a society, but they do not know what their own social class or position in life will be. This means that they cannot choose principles that would benefit themselves at the expense of others.
Rawls argued that, under the veil of ignorance, people would choose principles that would ensure that everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed, regardless of their social class or background. This is because they would not want to risk being born into a disadvantaged position and being denied the opportunity to achieve their full potential.
Rawls ideas are associated with liberal politics. In contrast to Rawls, Robert Nozick, disagreed with many of the arguments put forward by him.
Keywords:
Unjust: Something that is unfair, not in accordance with principles of fairness or equality.
Just society: A society that upholds principles of fairness, equality, and respects individual rights and liberties.
Justice as fairness: A concept proposed by John Rawls, implying that justice is achieved when principles are determined impartially and without knowledge of one's own position in society.
Difference principle: A principle stating that inequalities are justifiable only if they benefit the most disadvantaged members of society.
Veil of ignorance: A thought experiment where decision-makers imagine themselves without knowledge of their own social position to ensure impartiality in creating just principles for society.
Liberal: is a political ideology that advocates for social and economic equality, progressive policies, and government intervention to address social issues and economic inequalities.
Compare and Contrast the ideas of Robert Nozick and John Rawls
Compare and Contrast the ideas of Robert Nozick and John Rawls
Use a venn diagram to explore the different ideas put foward by the two key theorists here are some things to consider.
Nozick's entitlement theory: This theory argues that people are entitled to what they have if they acquired it through just means.
Rawls' justice as fairness theory: This theory argues that a just society is one in which everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed, regardless of their social class or background.
Nozick believes that the government should not redistribute wealth or income, while Rawls believes that the government has a responsibility to do so in order to ensure that everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed.
However, the two theories do have some important similarities. Both theories emphasize the importance of individual rights and freedoms.
Discursive Essay
Discursive Essay
Discuss the concept of social class and its impact on an individuals life chances. Support your answer with relevant examples and refer to the work of at least two key theorists you studied on your course.
LO 2.3: gender as important social category
"Gender Matters: Unraveling the Ongoing Debate and Complexities"
"Gender Matters: Unraveling the Ongoing Debate and Complexities"
Gender and sex are often mixed up in discussions, so it is essential to distinguish between them.
For many people, sex is commonly understood in a binary way, where you are categorised as either male or female based on your biological and physical characteristics. Some argue sex is not fixed therefore sex is a spectrum and there are intersex individuals who may have viarations in their sex characteristics. Such a perspective challenges traditional understandings of sex.
On the other hand, gender is about the roles, behaviors, and identities society links to your perceived sex. It is more complex and can vary across cultures and time.
Judith Butler, a sociologist, discusses how gender is a social construct. She challenges the idea that it's only male or female and suggests that it's constantly created through how we act and what society expects of us. Some key theorists argue gender identities are not fixed; they are shaped by social norms and how we express ourselves. This includes identities beyond just male or female, like non-binary or genderqueer and gender fluid.
Gender is a social category that influences power relations by defining roles, behaviors, and expectations based on societal norms of femininity and masculinity, shaping how individuals perceive themselves and others.
Keywords:
Social construct: an idea that has been created and accepted by the people in a society and reproduced by powerful institution for example the government, religious bodies, media, education etc.
Factors that influence characteristics of gender
Factors that influence characteristics of gender
Gender Stereotyping
Gender Stereotyping
Gender stereotyping is the practice of making assumptions about people based on their gender. These assumptions can be about personality traits, interests, occupations, and even physical appearance. Gender stereotypes can be both positive and negative, but they can all have a harmful impact on individuals and society as a whole. Can you think of gender stereotypes you here or see in everyday life?
Some examples of gender stereotyping in everyday life include: Assuming that all men are good at math and all women are good at cooking, expecting boys to be more aggressive and girls to be more emotional and telling a girl that she should be a nurse because she is "caring" or a boy that he should be a doctor because he is "smart."
Factors that shape stereotyping:
Media portrayals: The media often reinforces gender stereotypes by depicting men and women in certain roles. For example, men are often shown as being strong and assertive, while women are often shown as being nurturing and caring.
Parenting: Parents can also play a role in shaping gender stereotypes by encouraging their children to conform to traditional gender roles. For example, parents might encourage their son to play with trucks and their daughter to play with dolls.
Culture: Cultural norms can also influence gender stereotypes. For example, in some cultures, it is seen as more appropriate for men to be breadwinners and for women to be stay-at-home mothers.
Gender stereotypes can have a number of negative consequences, including:
Limiting people's choices: Gender stereotypes can limit people's choices about what they want to do with their lives. For example, a girl who is told that she should be a nurse because she is "caring" might not consider a career in engineering, even if she is interested in it.
Leading to discrimination: Gender stereotypes can lead to discrimination in the workplace, education, and other areas of life. For example, a woman might be passed over for a promotion because she is seen as being "too emotional" or a man might be denied custody of his children because he is seen as being "the breadwinner."
Harming mental health: Gender stereotypes can also harm people's mental health. For example, a boy who is constantly told that he is not "manly" enough might develop low self-esteem.
Key term: Patriarchy
Key term: Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a form of social organisation which men have more power and dominate other genders. Patriarchy is a set of attitudes + behaviour + systems. A society which favours men over women
Patriarchy can be defined as a system whereby women are excluded from the social, political, economic and cultural aspects of society or government and where the system is dominated by men. In this section, we will explore how patriarchy becomes ingrained in everyday life.
Research
Research
The Gendered Curriculum:
Some key theorists argue males and females are encouraged to study different subjects. Some subjects becoming seen as male, some as female and some as gender neutral. Gendered subject take-up in second level would suggest that young women and men are strongly predisposed to choose gender-stereotypical careers in further and higher education and there is ample evidence that this is happening.
The gendered character of subject take-up is highly visible in the further education sector. Both females and males are concentrated in traditional gendered areas of training. Women are concentrated in the very high number of secretarial, business-based and childcare courses provided; men are concentrated in more technical and industrial-type courses.
From research conducted in 2000 it showed within higher education, although women now constitute 55 per cent of science students, they make up over two-thirds (67 per cent) of arts and humanities students but only 19 per cent of engineering students.
The most popular subject at Leaving Certificate in 2019 with a significant discrepancy between the male and female participation rate was Home Economics. Over 12,000 students did Home Economics – making it the fifth most popular subject (excluding Irish, English and Mathematics), after Biology, Geography, French and Business. Despite its popularity, only 1,513 male students did Home Economics, representing 13% of the total number doing the subject.
Conduct a survey to investigate the subject options selected by Leaving Cert students, exploring whether there is a gendered dimension to their choices.
Source:
Diversity at School, Anne Lodge and Kathleen Lynch (2004)
The Irish Constitution (Bunreachat na hÉireann):
The Irish constitution firmly establishes the role of women and represents Irish life from 86 years ago.
Article 41.2: In particular, the State recognises that by her life within the home, woman gives to the State a support without which the common good cannot be achieved.
The State shall, therefore, endeavour to ensure that mothers shall not be obliged by economic necessity to engage in labour to the neglect of their duties in the home.
The article acknowledges the essential role of women's lives within the home in supporting the State and the common good. This recognition highlights the significant contributions of women in the domestic sphere, although it stereotypes women as primarily responsible for home duties. While the article addresses mothers specifically, it may raise concerns about gender equality. It could be interpreted as reinforcing traditional gender roles, suggesting that women should be primarily responsible for home duties, which may hinder efforts to achieve gender equality in society. While Article 41.2 seeks to protect mothers and recognise their contributions, it may also inadvertently perpetuate traditional gender norms, potentially limiting opportunities for women's advancement in the workforce and society.
A citizen's assembly - a forum used to debate proposed constitutional changes before a referendum - recommended removing the references to a woman's place in the home and replacing them with non-discriminatory and gender-neutral language. A refereundim is expected in November 2023.
In a group of two or more people, discuss various arguments and debates surrounding the possibility of a referendum on Article 41.2. Once, completed share your ideas with your class.
Source:
Bunreacht na hÉireann
Representation in media:
In the largest study on the portrayal, participation and representation of women in the news media spanning 20 years and 114 countries, only 24 per cent of the persons heard, read about or seen in newspaper, television and radio news are women.
Some theorists argue with the rise of sexually objectified portrayals of women in mainstream media, females are reduced to their bodies and are encouraged to care about their appearance. These themes reveal that women are seen as decorative objects and not as people with thoughts, feelings, and voices.
Content Analysis: Conduct a home-based TV programming observation, specifically focusing on a 3-minute advertisement, to examine the portrayal of gender roles. Observe whether women are depicted in association with cleaning products and men with cars, or if there is a reversal of traditional gender roles in the advertisement.
Source:
UNWomen
Key theorist Sylvia Walby explores the concept of patriarchy in her work, describing it as both a private and public system. She outlines six structures of patriarchy, and we will apply her framework to examine whether contemporary Irish society and the broader European context can be considered patriarchal.
Paid Work: Patriarchy influences the division of labour in the workplace, where women often face occupational segregation, wage gaps, and limited access to leadership positions, while men dominate in higher-paying and decision-making roles. In 2014, the CSO reported on average, women in Ireland are paid 14% less than their male counterparts. In the 2019 Gender Pay Gap index - Ireland scored 71.3 / 100 points - placing it above the EU average of 66.2. The index revealed that a women's mean monthly earnings are €2,808 in Ireland, compared to €3,423 for men, while the full-time equivalent employment rate for women is 43.9% compared to 60% for men. Furthermore, Eurostat reported in 2018, women's gross hourly earnings were on average 14.8 % below those of men in the European Union (EU-27) and 15.9 % in the euro area (EA-19).
Housework: Patriarchy perpetuates traditional gender roles within households, with women disproportionately burdened with unpaid domestic labour, limiting their time and opportunities for career advancement and personal pursuits. The CSO (2016) also reported the numbers of women working from home or looking after family is far greater than the amount of men in the same role (445, 500 women compared to 9,200 men). Furthermore, the IHREC & ERSI (2019) reported women in Ireland complete on average just under 20 hours of housework per week, and men complete an average of seven hours. According to the European Commission, almost 90 million people in the EU have care responsibilities for children. A clear pattern is visible: whatever the country, the share of women is always higher than the share of men. In the EU-28, in 2018, a third of employed women had a work interruption for childcare reasons. On the contrary, this percentage for men is at 1.3 %. In the EU in 2016, 78 % of women cooked and/or did housework on a daily basis, compared with 32 % of men.
State: Patriarchal ideologies are embedded in state institutions and policies, affecting laws, social welfare, and governance, often leading to gender-biased regulations and inadequate support for women's rights and equality. Despite the population of Ireland being more or less evenly split between males and females, only 22.5% of TDs are women, who represent one- quarter of appointments to cabinet and junior ministries. The introduction of gender quotas in 2016 saw a doubling of female candidacy to 31% in the 2020 general election, compared with 2011. Despite this, 36 female TDs were elected in the February 2020 general election, an increase of just one since 2016. (RTÉ News; 2020). Within the EU, women make up 40.4% of the European Parliament (EP) from 2019 to 2024. Eleven Member States had gender quotas in the 2019 European elections. For example, Luxembourg required 50 % for each gender on the list. Italy applied parity lists whereby candidates of the same gender may not exceed half of the candidates on the list, and where the first two candidates must not be of the same gender. In addition, second and third preference votes were not to be counted if voters chose only candidates of one gender.
Gender Violence: The prevalence of male violence against women is a significant aspect of patriarchy, perpetuating fear and control over women's bodies, freedoms, and choices. In Ireland, 26% of women have experienced physical and/or sexual violence at least once since the age of 15. 72% of experienced health problems as a result (EIGE 2017). Women's Aid Ireland state 1 in 4 women have experienced some form of gender based violence. The 2020 COVID-19 restrictions saw an increase of reported domestic violence up between 25 to 30% (An Garda Síochána; 2020). Between 45% to 55% of women in the EU have experienced sexual harassment since the age of 15. 22 % of all women who have (had) a partner have experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a partner since the age of 15. At the beginning of COVID-19 EU states reported an increase in domestic violence, for example France saw a 32 % jump in just over a week. Lithuania observed 20 % more domestic violence reports over a three-week lockdown period than over the same period in 2019. Ireland reported a 30% increase during the first restrictions introduced in spring 2020.
Sexuality: Patriarchal systems influence attitudes and norms surrounding sexuality, often enforcing double standards for men and women, contributing to the objectification and oppression of women. The majority of trafficked persons into the Republic of Ireland and the rest of the EU between 2012-2016 were girls and women with most subject to sexual and labour exploitation (Council of Europe; 2017). Period poverty is an issue where girls and women struggle to afford sanitary products. Half of females aged 12-19 (2018) in Ireland said they have experienced issues paying for sanitary products. Powerful cultural institutions such as the media, the state and religious institutions often exploit women's sexuality to oppress and weaken women's position in society e.g. women sexualised in advertising, limited reproductive healthcare and few women holding any significant power in religious institutions. The Council of Europe has highlighted the lack of access to modern contraception, including lack of subsidization or reimbursement, poor quality information and misconceptions, and requirements for third-party authorisation as one major challenge to women. Furthermore, the lack of adequate standards of healthcare and respect for women’s rights in childbirth in several areas of Europe, including in some cases coercive and discriminatory practices in maternal healthcare. The infringements are particularly acute for marginalised groups of women, including poor women, Roma women, undocumented migrant women, women with disabilities.
Culture: Patriarchy is deeply rooted in cultural beliefs and representations, reinforcing gender stereotypes and traditional gender norms that dictate social expectations and limit individual agency. It is often argued culture of Western societies has consistently distinguished between men and women and expected different behaviours from them, but the expected patterns of behaviour are beginning to change. In the Irish education system, there is much discussion about the 'gendered curriculum' about one- third of schools in Ireland are single-sex, a situation that is almost unique in Europe - boys do "manly" subjects e.g. woodwork and girls do the "caring" subjects e.g. home economics. Both girls and women are underrepresented in sports and other cultural institutions - one initiative to counteract this is 20x20 a campaign to increase awareness of female participation in sport. In Irish board rooms, women now hold an average of 31 per cent of board positions in Irish companies, meaning men make up 69% of decision-making roles (EY; 2019). Within the business world, the number of women in business leadership is low: in April 2019, women accounted for just 27.8% of board members of the largest publicly-listed companies registered in EU countries (European Commission). The representation of women in European media is declining. In France, women represent 42% on screen, dropping at 29% during peak time programming. On the Italian public service broadcaster RAI, women are rarely central in programmes. In Ireland, the research shows women directors and writers who applied for funding in the creative industry find it extremely difficult to get funding either for development or production, compared to their male counterparts. Across Europe most of the research conducted on-screen portrayal focuses on the stereotypical depictions of women. Stereotyping is more prominent in news and current affairs.
Case Study: Feminism - The Fight for Equality
Case Study: Feminism - The Fight for Equality
The Fourth (Digital) Wave?
Ongoing debates among key theorists revolve around the question of whether the feminist movement has transitioned from third-wave feminism to fourth-wave feminism. Some theorists contend that with the emergence of the #MeToo Movement, we have indeed entered the era of third-wave feminism. Digital media played a significant role in helping expose abuse of women. Social media allowed feminists and survivors of abuse to connect with each other and share their stories. They have also made it easier for feminists to organise and mobilise and raise awareness of feminist issues. Social media allowed people to mobilise to street protests this occurred in many countries across North America, South America, Europe and Asia.
The #MeToo took on different forms across the world for example in France it was referred to as #BalanceTonPorc and in Spain #Cuéntalo.
Feminism is the belief in the social, economic, and political equality of the sexes. Feminism is a broad social movement that encompasses a wide range of beliefs and goals. A common goal of most feminists is for women to have the same rights and opportunities as men.
Feminism has a long and complex history, dating back to the 18th century. The movement has achieved significant progress in recent decades, but there is still much work to be done. Women continue to face discrimination in many areas, including the workplace, the media, and politics. They are also more likely to be victims of violence than men.
The feminist movement is a global movement, and it is important to remember that the experiences of women in different countries are different. However, the movement is united by a common goal: to achieve equality for women.
In mainstream media, feminism is often portrayed with stereotypical constructions that oversimplify and misrepresent the movement. Feminism is sometimes depicted as a monolithic entity. However, feminist encompasses a diverse range of ideas and perspectives. For example, Marxist feminism critiques the patriarchal systems within capitalism, highlighting how gender oppression intertwines with class struggles. Ecofeminism connects environmental issues with women's liberation, asserting that the exploitation of nature mirrors the subjugation of women. Black feminism emphasises the intersection of race, gender, and class, focusing on the unique challenges faced by Black women and advocating for their empowerment. Islamic feminism seeks to reconcile Islamic teachings with gender equality, challenging patriarchal interpretations and advocating for women's rights within the context of Islam.
The feminist movement has faced backlash throughout its history, with some individuals and groups opposing its principles and goals. The backlash of feminism often takes the form of resistance to gender equality initiatives, stereotyping feminists as aggressive or anti-men, and attempts to undermine progress towards women's rights. Critics may argue that feminism has gone too far or is no longer necessary in modern societies, dismissing the ongoing challenges and inequalities faced by women. Moreover, backlash can manifest in attempts to roll back hard-won rights and push for regressive policies. Despite these challenges, feminists continue to advocate for gender equality and challenge the barriers hindering progress towards a more inclusive and just society for all genders.
Timeline: Feminist Movement
Late 19th-century: The first wave of feminism emerged in developed countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and other parts of Europe. Activists focused on securing women's suffrage (the right to vote) and advocating for women's rights in education and employment.
1902: Australia and New Zealand granted women the right to vote in federal and national elections.
1906: Finland became the first European country to grant women the right to vote.
1918: Ireland introduced the vote for women in parlimentary elections, however women had to meet a criteria to vote.
1944: France granted women the right to vote.
1960: The introduction of oral contraceptives (the Pill) in the USA, revolutionised reproductive rights and family planning.
1963: Kenya granted women the right to vote.
1970s: The second wave of feminism took root in Ireland, focusing on reproductive rights, domestic violence, and workplace discrimination.
1971: Switzerland grants women the right to vote.
1973: Contraception was legalised in Ireland, allowing married couples to access certain forms of birth control.
1973: The landmark Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade legalised abortion in the United States..
2011: Saudi Arabia granted women the right to vote in municipal elections.
2018: The #MeToo movement gained momentum, spreading globally to raise awareness about sexual harassment and assault.
2019: Following years of campaigning and many controverisal events abortion (up to 12 weeks) is legalised in Ireland.
2021: The Taliban's recapture of Afghanistan has led to the enforcement of stringent laws that severely restrict women's participation in education and public life.
2022: The US Supreme Court overturned the Roe V Wade which guaranteed abortion rights, some states in the US are banning abortion and reproductive rights.
2022: Protests erupt in Iran, as the government legislates for women to wear a headscarf.
Different Waves of Feminism
Different Waves of Feminism
First-wave feminism (1848-1920) focused on women's suffrage and other legal rights. This wave of feminism was successful in achieving women's suffrage in many countries, including the United States, Finland, Ireland, and Canada.
Second-wave feminism (1960s-1980s) focused on issues such as reproductive rights, workplace equality, and domestic violence.
Third-wave feminism (1990s-present) is a diverse movement that encompasses a wide range of issues, including body image, sexual harassment, and gender stereotypes. This wave of feminism is often more intersectional than previous waves, meaning that it takes into account the experiences of women of color, LGBTQ+ women, and other marginalized groups.
Fourth-wave feminism is still in its early stages, but it is already being shaped by the digital age. This wave of feminism is using social media to raise awareness of feminist issues and to mobilise women around the world. Fourth-wave feminists are also challenging traditional notions of gender, and they are working to create a more inclusive and just world for all women.
I was elected by the women of Ireland, who instead of rocking the cradle, rocked the system.
Mary Robinson – former President of Ireland and UN Human Rights Commissioner
Case Study: Women in Politics
Case Study: Women in Politics
Maternity Leave Dilemma Exposes Gender Gap in Irish Politics
n 2021, Helen McEntee, who was the Minister for Justice at the time, became pregnant while in office. While this situation would not be an issue in most developed countries, it underscored the male-dominated nature of the Irish political system.
Existing legislation did not provide for politicians to take maternity leave, as outlined in the 1937 Bunreacht na hÉireann. The Irish constitution defines the role of politicians, but it was written at a time when the inclusion of women in politics was not anticipated. As a result, the constitution still recognises a woman's role within the home, but not beyond it.
This oversight led to a constitutional dilemma, as it was unclear whether McEntee, as a sitting politician, would have to resign, given that her right to maternity leave was not protected. After several months of legal and political discussions, then Taoiseach Micheál Martin announced that McEntee would be entitled to six months' paid maternity leave without needing to step down. This decision was seen as a significant step forward for gender equality by women's rights groups. However, some legal experts warned that it could set a precedent that might weaken the constitutional protections for women's rights.
There have been calls for the constitution to be updated to reflect the changing role of women in society, but these calls have faced resistance from some quarters. The 1937 constitution continues to reflect a traditional view of women as homemakers and caregivers. An attempt to amend the constitution regarding women's role in society was defeated in 2024. A case study for which will be available shortly.
For the first time in history, every functioning parliament in the world has at least one woman, according to data from the 2022 IPU report; however, the report noted progress towards gender equality remains "painfully slow."
Rwanda has the highest percentage of women in parliament (60%). There are several reasons why Rwanda has such a high percentage of women in politics. One reason is that the Rwandan government has made a concerted effort to increase women's participation in politics. For instance, the government has set a quota of 30% for women in parliament, and it has also provided financial support to women's political organizations. Another reason for Rwanda's high percentage of women in politics is the country's history. After the Rwandan genocide in 1994, women played a significant role in rebuilding the country. They were elected to parliament in large numbers, and they also took on leadership roles in government ministries.
In Ireland, we continue to experience low levels of female participation within politics. Despite making some progress, we are still way behind many of our European and global partners. The 32nd Government of Ireland was formed in June 2020 by Taoiseach Micheál Martin. As of 2023, it includes four women as ministers in the cabinet: Norma Foley, Heather Humphreys, Catherine Martin, and Helen McEntee. Ireland maintains one of the lowest levels of female participation in its parliament. In 2016, 35 (22%) women were elected to the government when compared to the 123 (78%) men. These results followed the introduction of a gender quota system.
The National Women's Council (NWC) have argued that quotas must also be introduced at European and Local Elections levels. In many countries, local government is seen as a major pillar of their democracy and is far more advanced than in Ireland. The NWC argues for gender quotas at local and European elections, noting that men currently represent 49.37% of the population yet hold 74% of local government seats.
The Government of Ireland has implemented several policies to increase female participation in politics. These include:
In 2012, the Irish Parliament adopted a law obliging political parties to select at least 30% women candidates and 30% men candidates to contest general elections. The threshold rises to 40% from 2023 onwards. If the quota is not met, political parties will lose 50% of the State funding they receive on an annual basis to run their operations.
A €25,000 grant for women running for election, designed to help women cover the costs of campaigning.
Several training and mentoring programs for women in politics.
Some challenges identified as producing barriers for women in politics include:
The traditional view of women as homemakers and caregivers, resulting in a lack of family-friendly working hours and facilities within the institutions of the Oireachtas.
The lack of female role models in politics.
Women who engage in politics often experience a large amount of verbal abuse and misogyny on social media when compared to their male counterparts.
The male-dominated culture of political parties.
"The issue is not that women are not interested [in politics], the issue is that the system is set up in a way that excludes them." - Ciara Hugh (National Women's Council)
Women in Politics across Europe
Within a wider European context the number of women in national parliamnets varies from country to country. In 2020, the highest share of female members in national parliaments was recorded in Sweden, where women accounted for almost a half of parliamentarians (close to 50%), ahead of Finland (46%), Belgium (43%) and Spain (both 42%).
At the opposite end of the scale, the lowest shares were recorded in Hungary and Malta (both 13%).
Over half of government members are female in Finland, Austria, Sweden and France
Over the past years, the share of female members of government (senior and junior ministers) in the EU increased as well: from 20% in 2004 to 33% in 2020.
In 2020, Finland had the highest share of female members in its government (55%). Finland was followed by Austria (53%), Sweden (52%), France (51%) and Belgium (50%).In contrast, the lowest shares were recorded in Malta (8%), Greece (11%) and Estonia (13%).
(Source: Eurostat)
Maternity Leave Dilemma in New Zealand
A comparable scenario unfolded in New Zealand during 2017, when its former Prime Minister, Jacinda Ardern, became pregnant while in office. Just like in Ireland, the New Zealand constitution lacked provisions for maternity leave for any potential female Prime Minister. Ardern's personal journey as a pregnant prime minister has played a pivotal role in inspiring other women in politics. Her experience has demonstrated that women can effectively balance their work and family responsibilities, even while holding the highest positions in government. Furthermore, it has contributed to altering the public perception of pregnant women in the workplace.
Questions to consider:
According to the 2022 IPU report, what is the historical significance regarding women's representation in parliaments worldwide?
What measures has the Rwandan government taken to increase women's participation in politics, resulting in a high percentage of women in parliament?
How many women were elected to the 32nd Government of Ireland, and how does this compare to the number of men elected?
What policies has the Irish government implemented to boost female participation in politics?
Analyze the reasons behind the varying percentages of women in national parliaments across different European countries, highlighting the factors that contribute to the disparities.
How effective have gender quotas been in increasing female representation in politics, and what are the potential drawbacks or challenges associated with their implementation?
Keywords:
Human nature: Human nature refers to the inherent and fundamental characteristics, behaviors, and tendencies that are common to all human beings.
Pessimistic: Having a negative or gloomy outlook on life or a particular situation.
Central Authority: A governing body or person with significant power and control over a group or society.
Social Contract: An implicit or explicit agreement in which individuals give up some freedoms to form a society and be governed by its rules.
Authoritative System: A system of governance characterised by strict control and adherence to rules and commands from those in power.
Optimistic: Having a positive or hopeful view of life or a particular situation.
Individual Liberties: Personal freedoms and rights that are inherent to each person e.g. freedom of speech.
Personal Autonomy: The ability and right of an individual to make independent decisions and choices for oneself.
Walby, Lynch and Nussbaum on patriarchy
Walby, Lynch and Nussbaum on patriarchy
Patriarchy can be defined as a social system in which men hold primary power and authority, often leading to the subordination and oppression of women.
According to key theorist Sylvia Walby patriarchy is both private (within the home) and public (within wider society). In Walby's earlier work Theorising Patriarchy she identified six structures of patriarchy (see below). However, in her more recent work she has reduced this down to four structures. According to Walby, patriarchy is not solely based on men's dominance over women, but it also involves various forms of power, including class and 'race'. Walby's work emphasises the need to analyse gender inequalities in a comprehensive and interconnected manner, taking into account the broader social contexts in which they occur.
Key theorist Kathleen Lynch, focuses on the relationship between gender, care work, education, and social justice. She critiques the patriarchal nature of the education system and its impact on perpetuating gender inequalities through the gendered curriculum. Lynch argues that education, as an institution, tends to reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations, limiting opportunities for women and perpetuating gender-based discrimination. She advocates for a more inclusive and egalitarian education system that challenges gender stereotypes and values diversity and equality. Lynch also argues care work is largely left to women and as a result this negatively impacts women's rights and wider society. In her most recent work Care and Capitalism, she argues power structures such as neoliberal capitalism undervalues care work (looking after children, eldery and those who are sick). For example, capitalism demands for competition, individualism and economic growth, whereas care work demands for cooperation, collective responsbility and interdependence. For Lynch, care is a central feature of human life, but is often undervalued and unpaid. Such unpaid work is largely done by women as a result Lynch argues the current system of care is unsustainable. The increasing demands for care are not being met by the current system, which is leading to social and economic problems. She suggests we need to reclaim the language of love, care, and solidarity. These are the values that can help us to build a more just and caring society.
Martha Nussbaum,explores the concept of capabilities and how it relates to gender justice. Nussbaum proposes the "capabilities approach," which assesses a person's freedom and opportunities to achieve valuable functionings in life. In her work, she examines how gender-based inequalities restrict women's capabilities and limit their ability to fully participate in society. Nussbaum argues that gender justice requires addressing structural barriers that hinder women's capabilities and promoting gender equality in all aspects of life, including education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.
Sylvia Walby
Kathleen Lynch
Martha Nussbaum
Discursive Essay
Discursive Essay
Discuss whether modern Ireland is a patriarchal society? In your answer refer to relevant examples to illustrate your points and refer to at least two key theorists in your answer.
CEDAW: Advancing Gender Equality and Women's Rights on the Global Stage
CEDAW: Advancing Gender Equality and Women's Rights on the Global Stage
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) stands as a landmark international treaty dedicated to promoting gender equality and safeguarding the rights of women and girls worldwide.
Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, CEDAW has played a pivotal role in reshaping policies and empowering women, championing their rights, and challenging deeply entrenched discriminatory practices.
It is a legally binding international treaty.
CEDAW has been ratified by 189 countries, Ireland adopted the treaty in 1985.
CEDAW prohibits discrimination against women in all spheres of life, including political, economic, social, cultural, civil, and family life.
CEDAW requires States Parties to take positive steps to promote gender equality and to eliminate discrimination against women.
CEDAW has been interpreted by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW Committee), which is a body of independent experts that monitors the implementation of CEDAW by States Parties.
The CEDAW Committee has issued General Recommendations, which are non-binding but authoritative interpretations of CEDAW. You can view recommendations to Ireland from the link below.
CEDAW is an important tool for promoting women's rights and achieving gender equality.
The Irish government has taken a number of steps to implement CEDAW, including:
Enacting legislation to prohibit discrimination against women, such as the Employment Equality Act 1998 and the Equal Status Act 2004.
Establishing a number of bodies to promote gender equality, such as the National Women's Council of Ireland and the Equality Authority.
Developing a number of policies and programs to promote gender equality, such as the National Strategy for Women and Men 2013-2020.
International agreements on women's rights
1945: The United Nations is founded and adopts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which includes the principle of equality between men and women.
1979: The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. CEDAW is the first legally binding international instrument to guarantee women's rights.
1993: The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women is adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The Declaration recognizes violence against women as a human rights violation and calls for its elimination.
2002: The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, is adopted. The Istanbul Convention is the first legally binding international instrument to specifically address violence against women.
Data and Evidence:
The discrepancy between women's rights in developed countries and developing countries is evident. Look at the graph below and conlude what factors have led to such differences.
Video: What is CEDAW?
Document: CEDAW for Youth
Document: Committee Recommendations to Ireland
Resources: IHREC and CEDAW
LO 2.4: arguments concerning representation
LO 2.5: evidence about the effectiveness of representation
LO 2.6: traditional and new media in a democracy
Keywords: Media
Keywords: Media
The way in which information is communicated to the public
The way in which information is communicated to the public
In our increasingly interconnected world, media's influence knows no bounds, extending across the vast digital landscape. From traditional outlets like newspapers, radio, and television to the expansive realm of social media and online platforms, media plays a pivotal role in shaping our understanding and engagement with national and global events. It serves as a vital window to the world, providing valuable insights into events we may not experience firsthand.
Beyond its role as an information source, media wields significant power in how it portrays various groups in society. It has the potential to either amplify the voices of different social, gender, ethnic, disability, and other groups, or, on the contrary, marginalize and perpetuate biases against them. As a reflection of societal norms and values, media's representation can either challenge stereotypes and promote inclusivity or perpetuate harmful disparities.
In this section, we will explore the dynamics of media's influence and decision-making, both in traditional and digital contexts.
Keywords: Mass Media
Keywords: Mass Media
This is the distribution of information to a large audience through various channels such as traditional media e.g. television, radio, newspapers, and digital media e.g. the internet, social blogs, media, podcasts etc.
This is the distribution of information to a large audience through various channels such as traditional media e.g. television, radio, newspapers, and digital media e.g. the internet, social blogs, media, podcasts etc.
Keywords:
Propaganda Model: Human nature refers to the inherent and fundamental characteristics, behaviors, and tendencies that are common to all human beings.
Pessimistic: Having a negative or gloomy outlook on life or a particular situation.
Central Authority: A governing body or person with significant power and control over a group or society.
Social Contract: An implicit or explicit agreement in which individuals give up some freedoms to form a society and be governed by its rules.
Authoritative System: A system of governance characterised by strict control and adherence to rules and commands from those in power.
Optimistic: Having a positive or hopeful view of life or a particular situation.
Individual Liberties: Personal freedoms and rights that are inherent to each person e.g. freedom of speech.
Personal Autonomy: The ability and right of an individual to make independent decisions and choices for oneself.
Key Theorist Noam Chomsky on Media
Key Theorist Noam Chomsky on Media
Key theorist Noam Chomsky has written extensively on the media. He is best known for his "propaganda model," which argues that the mainstream media is not a neutral source of information but rather a system that manufactures consent for the powerful.
Chomsky's arguments about the media are based on five filters that he believes shape the news:
Ownership: The media is owned by a small number of large corporations, which have their own financial interests to protect.This can lead to coverage that is favourable to those interests and ignores or downplays information that is not in line with those interests.
Advertising: The media relies on advertising revenue, which can lead to coverage that is biased towards advertisers and their products.
The media elite: The media is run by a small group of people who share a common set of values and beliefs. This can lead to coverage that reflects those values and beliefs, even when they are not shared by the general public.
Flak: The media is subject to pressure from powerful groups to cover certain issues in a certain way. This pressure can come from governments, corporations, and other special interests.
The common enemy: The media often creates a sense of common enemy, such as terrorists or criminals, in order to rally public support for government policies.
Chomsky argues that these five filters work together to create a system of media manufacturing consent for the powerful. The media presents information in a way that is designed to convince the public to support the interests of the powerful, even when those interests are harmful to the public.
Here are some specific examples of how Chomsky's arguments about the media have played out in the real world:
The media's coverage of the Iraq War was largely supportive of the Bush administration's decision to invade, even though the war was based on false pretenses.
The media's coverage of the climate crisis often downplays the severity of the problem and ignores the role of corporations and governments in contributing to the problem.
The media's coverage of economic inequality often focuses on individual responsibility, while ignoring the structural factors that contribute to inequality.
Chomsky's arguments about the media are important because they help us to understand how the media is shaped by powerful interests and how it can be used to manipulate public opinion. It is important to be aware of these biases so that we can critically evaluate the information that we consume from the media.
Noam Chomsky
Karl Marx
Key theorist Karl Marx on Media
Key theorist Karl Marx on Media
Key theoirst Karl Marx did comment on contemporary media, but only in terms of traditional print media. In general, Marx believed that the media served as a tool of the ruling class (the rich), used to maintain their power and control over the working class.
He argued that the media was used to spread propaganda and to shape public opinion in favour of the ruling class.
Marx also believed that the media played a key role in shaping people's consciousness and shaping their understanding of the world around them.
He argued that the media helped to create a shared culture and set of values among the members of a society, and that it played a crucial role in the maintenance of social order.
Overall, Marx saw the media as an important instrument of social control, used by the ruling class to maintain their power and influence.
If Karl Marx was alive today, how would he view the role of social media today?
If Karl Marx was alive today, how would he view the role of social media today?
The ownership and control of social media platforms. Social media platforms are owned by a small number of large corporations, which gives them a great deal of power over the flow of information. Marx would argue that this concentration of ownership is undemocratic and that it allows social media platforms to be used to manipulate public opinion.
The use of social media for advertising. Social media platforms rely on advertising revenue to survive. This means that they are constantly trying to collect and monetise users' personal data. Marx would argue that this is a form of exploitation, as users are being forced to give up their privacy in exchange for access to free services.
The spread of misinformation and disinformation on social media. Social media platforms are often used to spread false and misleading information. This can have a negative impact on public discourse and can lead to social unrest. Marx would argue that social media platforms should do more to combat the spread of misinformation and disinformation.
Key Idea: Surveillance capitalism
Key Idea: Surveillance capitalism
is the economic system in which personal data is collected and monetised without consent.
Philospher Shoshana Zuboff has written extensively on the intersection of technology and society. Her most recent work The Age of Surveillance Capitalism, is a groundbreaking work that examines the rise of a new economic order based on the collection and exploitation of personal data.
Zuboff argues that surveillance capitalism is fundamentally different from previous forms of capitalism in several ways. First, it is based on the extraction of data from individuals, rather than the production of goods and services. Second, it uses this data to predict and control human behavior. Third, it operates in a way that is largely opaque to the public, making it difficult to hold surveillance capitalists accountable.
Zuboff warns that surveillance capitalism poses a serious threat to democracy, individual liberty, and human autonomy. She argues that it is essential to develop new laws and regulations to protect people from the abuses of surveillance capitalism.
Zuboff argues that this is a new form of capitalism that is fundamentally different from the past. In the past, companies made money by selling products and services. But in the age of surveillance capitalism, companies make money by selling data about their customers. This new form of capitalism has a number of negative consequences, such as:
It reduces our privacy and autonomy.
It makes us more vulnerable to manipulation and control.
It undermines democracy and free markets.
Links to key theorists
Links to key theorists
Noam Chomsky who has written extensively on the media, propaganda, and the nature of power. In his work, Chomsky argues that the corporate media plays a key role in manufacturing consent and maintaining the status quo. He also argues that the United States is an imperial power that uses violence and coercion to maintain its global dominance.
Zuboff's work on surveillance capitalism builds on Chomsky's insights by showing how the collection and exploitation of personal data is used to manipulate and control people. She argues that surveillance capitalists are able to gather vast amounts of data about people's lives, which they can then use to predict and influence their behaviour. This gives surveillance capitalists a great deal of power over people, even if they don't realise it.
Karl Marx who developed a theory of capitalism that argued that it was a system of exploitation and oppression. Marx argued that capitalism is based on the exploitation of workers by capitalists, who own the means of production. This exploitation leads to a number of problems, such as inequality, alienation, and environmental destruction.
Zuboff's work on surveillance capitalism can be seen as an extension of Marx's theory of capitalism. She argues that surveillance capitalism is a new form of capitalism that is even more exploitative and oppressive than previous forms. Surveillance capitalists are able to profit from people's data without having to produce anything of value. This means that they are able to extract wealth from people without having to give anything back.
Should we regulate social media?
Should we regulate social media?
The usage of social media is continually growing worldwide, with approximately 90% of Irish individuals aged 19 to 24 utilising these platforms, according to Eurostat. On average, 56% of European Union citizens engage with social media sites. In the United States, an increasing number of people are obtaining their news through social media networks, with 55% of US citizens receiving news from these platforms, as reported by Pew. Conversely, within the European Union, only 29% of individuals use the internet as their primary source for news content, according to the European Commission.
One critical issue pertains to the lack of regulation in the realm of social media, both in the US and the EU. In alignment with Chomsky's propaganda model, factors such as ownership, advertising, and the utilisation of social media by political parties pose threats to democratic processes. The absence of regulation in social media is a cause for concern, acknowledged by numerous EU governments, prompting calls for the implementation of European regulations governing social media platforms. Unlike television and radio, social media remains largely unregulated, allowing content to originate from any source, and questions arise regarding ownership and financial practices. Chomsky's Propaganda model underscores how mass media, including social media, can serve as a platform for freedom of speech. However, it is arguable that social media is being used to sow divisions in society. The proliferation of populist sentiments, political advertising, and the spread of fake news can all be attributed to the absence of regulation in social media.
Case Study: How Social Media Is Twisting Europe's Vote
Case Study: How Social Media Is Twisting Europe's Vote
Twitter’s Role in Brexit: A Case Study
Twitter’s Role in Brexit: A Case Study
In June 2016, the United Kingdom held a historic referendum to decide whether to remain a member of the European Union or leave it. This vote—known as Brexit (a blend of “Britain” and “exit”)—ended with a narrow victory for the Leave side, with 52% voting to leave and 48% to remain.
The result shocked many across Europe and the world. While economic concerns, immigration, and national sovereignty were central to the debate, digital campaigning played a major role in shaping public opinion—especially on social media platforms like Twitter (now known as X).
In the months leading up to the referendum, Twitter became a political battleground where ideas, emotions, and identities clashed in real time. The Leave campaign used the platform more effectively, dominating conversations, driving emotional engagement, and spreading persuasive messages—sometimes with the help of bots and automated accounts.
The case study below explores how Twitter influenced voting behaviour during the Brexit campaign and helped tip the balance toward Leave.
1. Volume and Momentum: Leave Dominated the Conversation
1. Volume and Momentum: Leave Dominated the Conversation
Analysis of 29 million tweets during the Brexit campaign shows that tweets mentioning “Leave” outnumbered those referencing “Remain” by nearly 2:1 across several months, even though Twitter users skew younger and pro-Remain. Similarly, a separate study analyzing 7.5 million tweets found that Leave supporters were more active, tweeting and sharing significantly more than Remain advocates—even as Remain groups tried to mobilise.
2. Influence in the Twittersphere: Echo Chambers and Engagement
2. Influence in the Twittersphere: Echo Chambers and Engagement
A detailed analysis of geolocated UK Twitter data from six weeks before the referendum revealed that Leave voices were more influential. Using a version of the Hirsch index to measure both productivity and retweets, researchers found Leave users were roughly four times more influential on Twitter than Remain users PMC.
Their engagement patterns also revealed tighter echo chambers—Leave supporters interacted heavily within their own networks, reinforcing shared narratives, while Remain voices remained more diffuse.
3. Bots and Automation: Boosting Pro‑Leave Messages
3. Bots and Automation: Boosting Pro‑Leave Messages
Political bots played a strategic role. One analysis found that just 1% of the Twitter accounts produced nearly one-third of all Brexit content, with most of these automated accounts tweeting pro‑Leave hashtags at rates well over three times that of Remain bots.
Further research from Berkeley and Swansea Universities showed bots accelerated message diffusion—often within 1–2 hours—and disproportionately amplified content that aligned with existing Leave sentiment. Though the overall effect was described as “marginal,” it may have shifted results in such a tight referendum rahwebdav.swan.ac.uk.
4. Emotional Framing and Messaging Style
4. Emotional Framing and Messaging Style
Leave campaigns often used moral-emotional language (narratives around sovereignty, betrayal, or control), which performed better on Twitter than reasoned or data-heavy messages typical of Remain advocates. This gave Leave content an edge in engagement and spread
Behind the Screens: How Platforms Influence Elections Without You Even Noticing
It used to be that election campaigns meant posters on lamp posts, speeches in town squares, and maybe a few heated debates on TV. But in today's Europe, more and more political battles are being fought—and sometimes won or lost—on your phone screen.
From Facebook to TikTok, social media has become one of the most powerful tools in politics. And while it can help inform and connect voters, it can also distort how people vote, often in ways they don’t realise. With major elections across Europe in recent years showing signs of online manipulation, experts and watchdogs are warning: the health of European democracy may be at risk.
Your Feed, Their Agenda
Social media platforms are designed to keep users scrolling—not to inform them fairly. Algorithms push content that gets attention, even if it’s misleading, polarising, or completely false.
That means posts that stir anger or fear are more likely to go viral than calm, fact-based discussions. In political terms, this gives an edge to parties and figures who use emotion, exaggeration, or conspiracy theories—distorting the political landscape.
Worse still, because each user sees a different feed, two neighbours in the same town could have entirely different views of reality, based on what content the algorithm thinks they’ll engage with. That’s not democracy—it’s digital manipulation.
Micro-Targeting: Ads That Know You Too Well
Micro-Targeting: Ads That Know You Too Well
One of the most worrying trends is political micro-targeting. Using data gathered from social media activity, advertisers can tailor messages to match each person’s fears, beliefs, or preferences—without anyone else seeing them.
In practice, this means voters may be shown manipulative or misleading messages, designed just for them, that no fact-checkers or journalists can easily track. It becomes almost impossible to hold campaigns accountable.
Some EU countries have introduced laws to limit this, but enforcement is patchy, and tech platforms often act too slowly to remove harmful content—especially during the chaotic days before an election.
Fake Accounts, Real Impact
Fake Accounts, Real Impact
Another danger? Bots and fake accounts. These AI-powered profiles can flood social media with support for certain candidates, attack opponents, or push specific talking points—all while pretending to be real people.
Studies from the European Parliament have shown how fake activity has boosted far-right campaigns in several EU countries, especially during times of crisis like the refugee wave, the pandemic, or the cost-of-living crisis. By creating the illusion of widespread support, fake accounts can pressure undecided voters or drown out more balanced voices.
The “Digital Wild West”
The “Digital Wild West”
While the EU has begun passing laws—like the Digital Services Act—to hold platforms more accountable, many critics argue it’s still a “digital wild west” out there. Platforms are often left to police themselves, and the rules change from country to country.
Meanwhile, the pace of misinformation and online manipulation continues to outstrip regulation. Add AI-generated content like deepfakes into the mix, and it becomes even harder for voters to know what’s real and what’s not.
What Can Be Done?
What Can Be Done?
To protect Europe’s democracies, experts say several things must happen:
Stronger laws to control political ads and force transparency on platforms.
Better education so people can spot fake news and emotional manipulation.
Independent oversight of how platforms operate during elections.
And most importantly, a shift in how tech companies see their role—not just as profit-makers, but as gatekeepers of democratic spaces.
Conclusion: Democracy at a Crossroads
Conclusion: Democracy at a Crossroads
Social media has given a voice to millions across Europe—but it has also given a megaphone to those who would twist the truth and manipulate elections. Voting is supposed to be a free and fair expression of the people’s will. But if that will is being silently shaped by hidden algorithms, invisible ads, and false information, how free is it, really?
Europe’s challenge now is to protect democracy without shutting down digital freedom. The screen might feel personal—but what happens there can shape the future of an entire continent.
What would Karl Marx Think About AI?
What would Karl Marx Think About AI?
What is AI?
AI (Artificial Intelligence) is when computers or machines are designed to do things that usually need human intelligence. This includes understanding language, recognising faces, making decisions, or learning from experience. For example, when you ask your phone a question and it gives you an answer, that’s a form of AI.
How can AI distort democracy?
Democracy works best when people have fair access to good information and can freely make their own choices, like when voting.
But AI can cause problems in a few ways:
Spreading fake news: AI can quickly create fake news articles, images, or videos (called deepfakes) that look real. These can confuse people or spread lies during elections.
Social media manipulation: AI can be used to control what people see online. Powerful algorithms might show certain posts more than others, sometimes to push a political message or to keep people angry or divided, because that gets more attention.
Targeted political ads: AI can track people’s likes, beliefs, and fears, then show them custom political ads made just for them. This can secretly influence how someone thinks or votes, without them even realising it.
Fake accounts and bots: AI can create thousands of fake social media accounts that pretend to be real people. These bots can flood conversations, spread misinformation, or make it seem like more people support an idea than actually do.
AI and Gender
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is becoming a big part of our lives, helping with everything from writing reports to choosing who gets hired for jobs. But recent research shows that AI can be unfair – especially towards women.
A study published in the journal Computers in Human Behavior: Artificial Humans by Jerlyn Ho and other researchers in Singapore explains that AI often learns from information found on the internet. This data can be full of stereotypes that favour white men, while portraying women in more traditional or weaker roles.
The European Commission’s Generative AI Outlook Report 2025 also found that AI often repeats sexist ideas and can even produce harmful content about women. For example:
In job-related images created by AI, men were shown as strong leaders while women were shown as younger and less powerful.
AI systems sometimes show job ads for receptionists mostly to women and mechanic jobs mostly to men – which breaks anti-discrimination laws, as found in the Netherlands.
In schools, AI can wrongly guess that girls are more likely to drop out of science and tech subjects, limiting their chances at well-paid careers.
In Ireland and other countries, there is concern that AI is being used in workplaces without enough checks for bias. Some research even shows young men are becoming more conservative and traditional, and biased AI could support these views.
Experts from the global consulting company Mercer warn that if women aren’t included in the development of AI, the technology could create more barriers for them in the future.
The main message from researchers is this: AI must be used fairly. Businesses and governments should ask themselves why they’re using AI and how to make sure it doesn’t repeat old prejudices. This is a chance to design a better, fairer future for everyone – if we use AI responsibly.
As Artificial Intelligence continues to reshape our lives—from how we work to how we vote—many people are asking deep questions about power, control, and fairness in the digital age. But what if we asked one of history’s most famous critics of capitalism? What would Karl Marx think about AI?
It might seem strange to link a 19th-century philosopher to modern tech like chatbots, facial recognition, or social media algorithms. Yet Marx's ideas about class struggle, technology, and the control of power still echo loudly today. If he were alive now, here’s how he might see AI changing democracy and the lives of workers.
AI: The New Tool of the Capitalist Class?
AI: The New Tool of the Capitalist Class?
Marx believed that in capitalist societies, new technology is rarely neutral. Instead of freeing workers or reducing inequality, it’s often used to maximise profits for those who already own the factories—or in today’s world, the data centres and tech platforms.
AI is no different. From self-checkouts to automated warehouses, machines are replacing jobs at a growing pace. Marx would likely argue that AI is being used by the bourgeoisie (the ruling capitalist class) to cut labour costs, increase productivity, and weaken the bargaining power of the working class (the proletariat).
Even where workers remain, they’re often managed by algorithms—monitored, timed, and pressured by unseen systems that never sleep. For Marx, this would be a high-tech version of the exploitation he criticised in 19th-century factories.
- A Threat to Democracy, Too
AI doesn’t just affect the workplace. Marx might warn that it’s also shaping how people think, act, and vote—posing a danger to democracy itself.
Today, AI algorithms curate our news, personalise our feeds, and can be used to spread misinformation with chilling speed. Deepfakes, political bots, and data-driven ads can manipulate public opinion without people even realising it. For Marx, this would be evidence that democracy under capitalism is being hollowed out—not serving the people, but rather helping the powerful stay in control.
- A New Digital Class Struggle?
In Marx’s view, power always comes down to who owns the means of production—whether it’s land, factories, or, now, massive AI systems and oceans of data.
Tech giants and governments hold most of this power today. They decide how AI is built, who it serves, and what rules it follows (or breaks). Marx would likely call for a major shift: that AI and data should be collectively owned and controlled, used for the common good, not private profit.
- Conclusion: Marx’s Warning for the AI Age
Karl Marx saw capitalism as a system that concentrates wealth and power in fewer and fewer hands. If he were around today, he might see AI as the latest and most powerful tool in that system—one that threatens both the dignity of workers and the health of democracy.
But he’d probably also say: it doesn’t have to be this way.
AI could be used to lighten workloads, spread knowledge, and improve lives—if society chooses to share its benefits fairly. That would require big changes in how we think about ownership, rights, and the future of work.
In other words, the class struggle just got an upgrade.
Case Study: Social Media's Impact on European Voting: Shaping Outcomes in the Digital Age
Case Study: Social Media's Impact on European Voting: Shaping Outcomes in the Digital Age
Did Twitter influence the outcome of Brexit?
The debate over whether Twitter played a significant role in shaping the outcome of Brexit is a complex one, with compelling arguments on both sides.
On the side advocating for Twitter's influence, several key points stand out. First, Twitter served as a platform for the dissemination of misinformation and disinformation related to Brexit. Notably, the Leave.EU campaign used Twitter to spread false claims, like the assertion that the EU was planning a "Turkey-style" invasion of Britain by Muslims. Such falsehoods could have influenced public opinion.
Another argument in favour of Twitter's impact is that it acted as an echo chamber for pro-Brexit views. Pro-Brexit users tended to follow and retweet one another, creating a self-reinforcing bubble of information. This made it challenging for individuals to access a balanced view of the Brexit issue, potentially swaying opinions.
Furthermore, Twitter was employed for microtargeting swing voters with personalised messages, a strategy employed by the Leave.EU campaign. The tailoring of messages to individual interests increased the likelihood that swing voters would cast their ballots in favor of Brexit.
Research conducted by the University of Oxford revealed that pro-Brexit users were more likely to share fake news articles on Twitter than their pro-EU counterparts. The University of Warwick's study indicated that Twitter users were exposed to more pro-Brexit information than pro-EU content.
On the opposing side of the debate, arguments challenge Twitter's significance in shaping the Brexit outcome. One argument maintains that Twitter is just a small component of the overall media landscape, and other media forms, such as television and newspapers, played more substantial roles in influencing the Brexit debate.
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAY...
A study between Reuters and Oxford University analysed 2,378 news articles based over two days of press coverage each week for London editions of nine national newspapers over 4 months of the Brexit campaign. Of these articles 41% were pro leave as against 27% pro-remain. Press coverage focused heavily on politicians and campaign spokespeople with relatively few analysts/experts, academics, and foreign politicians cited, and with more attention on personalities and the contest, than the issues.
Research conducted by F-Secure and reported by BBC News suggests foreign Twitter accounts attempted to sway the Brexit debate, Analysing 24 million tweets from December 2018 to February 2019, the study identified a substantial amount of "inorganic" activity, including excessive retweeting by bots and fake accounts. While both pro-Leave and pro-Remain tweets received amplification, pro-Leave tweets saw slightly more support.
The London School of Economics [LSE] reported a study of 7.5 million tweets Eurosceptic voices dominated Twitter in the lead-up to the Brexit referendum. Leave supporters were more numerous and more active than Remain supporters on Twitter. Leave supporters were more likely to interact with each other than with Remain supporters on Twitter. This suggests that Twitter users who supported leaving the EU were more confined to an echo chamber than those who supported remaining.
Should we be concerned about how digital media is shaping voting in Europe?
In the wake of allegations that social media played a significant role in shaping the outcomes of the 2016 Brexit Referendum and the 2016 US Presidential election, both of which saw Donald Trump's victory and the UK's decision to leave the EU, concerns have arisen regarding the potential impact of digital media on subsequent national, local, and European elections. These concerns stem from the use of misinformation, the presence of bots, and the involvement of foreign social media accounts in those pivotal events.
With upcoming local and European elections European Commissioner Vice President Vera Jourova has expressed concern about disinformation coming from Russia in view of upcoming national and European elections.
In September 2023, Vera Jourova said she is convinced the Kremlin is already active in trying to manipulate European voters. As a result, she wants digital platforms that signed up to the so-called Voluntary Code of Practice on Disinformation to work on combatting it.
EVIDENCE..
For instance, a 2021 investigation conducted by the European Parliament revealed that social media platforms have become vehicles for disseminating false information and disinformation, fostering echo chambers, and amplifying extremist viewpoints. This investigation also highlighted the role of social media in eroding trust in established institutions and enabling foreign interference.
Similarly, a study published in Nature in 2022 established a correlation between social media usage and declining trust in institutions, along with an increase in support for populist political parties. Furthermore, this research indicated that engagement with social media is linked to reduced political participation.
In the context of the 2018 referendum on abortion rights in Ireland, Hot Press reported on how platforms like Facebook were paid to showcase deceptive advertisements, potentially swaying public opinion during the referendum. Much of the funding for these misleading ads originated from anti-choice organisations in the United States, with the aim of manipulating the democratic process in Ireland.
In various electoral events, such as the 2017 French presidential election, Russian bots were deployed to disseminate disinformation and sow discord among the French electorate. Similarly, during the 2019 German federal election, far-right groups harnessed social media to propagate racist and xenophobic content.
In the 2019 UK general election, the Conservative Party employed social media platforms to target voters with personalized, micro-targeted advertisements.
Case Study: How the Polish Government Uses Media to Promote Its Agenda
Case Study: How the Polish Government Uses Media to Promote Its Agenda
Controlling the narrative
In 2021, the Polish government proposed a bill that would have prevented non-European companies from owning a controlling stake in Polish media companies. The bill was widely seen as an attempt to silence TVN, a government-critical broadcaster that is owned by the U.S. company Warner Discovery.
The bill was passed by the Polish parliament in August 2021, but it was vetoed by President Andrzej Duda in September 2021. The bill has not been reintroduced since then.
The Polish government has argued that the bill was necessary to protect the country's media landscape from foreign influence. However, critics have argued that the bill was an attempt to silence independent media and to further consolidate the government's control over the media.
The proposed bill has been condemned by the European Union and the United States. The EU has threatened to take legal action against Poland if the bill is passed. The US has also warned Poland that the bill could damage relations between the two countries.
TVP (Telewizja Polska), Poland's public media broadcaster, was established in 1952 during the reign of the communist political movement PZPR. Like other communist-run countries, public media was often wielded as a tool to disseminate the government's agenda. However, by 1989, Poland had transitioned into a democracy, and public media gradually started to reflect a more diverse range of viewpoints. In contrast to many European countries where state-supported media operates independently from direct government influence, Poland's journey was marked by a transformation.
Upon Poland's entry into the EU in 2004, both public and private media outlets within the country began to represent a wide array of perspectives. The turning point occurred in 2005 when the Law and Justice (PiS) party, a conservative political group, was first elected and subsequently reelected in 2015. This ushered in a phase where the government party employed TVP as a vehicle to advance its political agenda. Under PiS's leadership, Poland transitioned from a democracy to an illiberal democracy.
Some of the tactics employed included:
Management and Editorial Changes: Upon ascending to power in 2015, the PiS party promptly replaced TVP's management and editorial board with individuals loyal to their cause, ensuring that the broadcaster's content aligned with government perspectives.
Censorship: Instances of direct censorship of news and programming on TVP have been documented. For example, in 2019, TVP faced fines from the Polish media regulator for failing to broadcast a documentary covering the government's contentious judicial reforms.
Propaganda Promotion: TVP frequently aired propaganda pieces endorsing government policies while attacking opposition figures.
Favourable Treatment for Government Officials: Government officials received preferential treatment on TVP, enjoying more airtime and coverage compared to opposition politicians, who were afforded fewer opportunities to express their views.
Case Study: The Arab Spring and Social Media
Case Study: The Arab Spring and Social Media
Social media had a major role on the Arab Spring, a series of protests in the Arab world in 2010-2011. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube helped activists connect, organise protests, and share information with people worldwide.Social media made it easier for activists to plan and organise protests. They could create event pages, invite others, and sort out details. For example, in Egypt, activists used Facebook to coordinate the protests that led to the removal of President Hosni Mubarak. Additionally, activists used social media to share news about protests, government actions, and more. This raised awareness about the Arab Spring and gained support from around the world. In Tunisia, Twitter was used to share videos and photos showing police brutality, which rallied public support for the uprising.
In countries with strict governments, like Syria and Libya, social media allowed activists to avoid government censorship and talk directly to the public. For instance, in Syria, activists used Facebook to create and share news that was not censored by the government.
Some examples of social media use during the Arab Spring:
Tunisian activists used Twitter to coordinate protests that led to the removal of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.
Libyan activists used social media to document and share evidence of human rights abuses by Muammar Gaddafi's regime.
In Syria, social media was used to share news and information about the uprising when mainstream media didn't cover it.
While social media played a big role in the Arab Spring by helping activists organise and spread the word, it didn't guarantee the success of the movement. Nonetheless, it was a valuable tool that assisted activists in their efforts.
Social media is often credited with driving the Arab Spring, however some argue its use was overplayed.
One counterargument is that social media was only a minor factor in the Arab Spring. Proponents of this view argue that the uprisings were primarily driven by economic and political grievances, such as high unemployment, corruption, and authoritarian rule. They argue that social media simply played a supporting role by helping activists to organise and communicate with each other.
Another counterargument is that social media was not evenly distributed across the Arab world. In some countries, such as Tunisia and Egypt, social media was widely used by activists. However, in other countries, such as Libya and Syria, social media penetration was much lower. This suggests that social media was not a necessary condition for the Arab Spring uprisings. For example, only 12% of Egyptians had access to the internet in 2011.
A third counterargument is that social media was also used by repressive regimes to suppress dissent and to spread misinformation. For example, the Syrian regime used social media to identify and arrest activists. The Egyptian regime also used social media to spread false rumors about the protests. This suggests that social media was a double-edged sword during the Arab Spring.
PODCAST: RTÉ Doc on One - Fear and Mistrust
This documentary looks at how misinformation and conspiracy have fuelled fear, mistrust and anger and have led to an increase in protests in Ireland in recent years. LISTEN HERE
LO 2.7: participants in these debates
LO 2.7: participants in these debates
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