Latest Updates

A step-up transformer amplifies the voltage of the electric source connected to the primary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to a capacitor, the maximum voltage of the capacitor will be greater than the input voltage. 

If the input voltage is constant, the voltage of the capacitor will stablize over time. If the input voltage is sinusoidal, the voltage of the capacitor will oscillate with an amplitude greater than the input voltage. If a diode is connected between the capacitor and the secondary coil, the voltage of the capacitor will stay at the maximum in each oscillation period and increase in next period.

One application of such amplification of electric voltage is the microwave oven. The input power is less than the output power at the beginning of each period. The output power becomes less than the input power at the end of each period.

Two capacitors in parallel connection can charge each other only if there is a circuit between the capacitors. The circuit can be as simple as a resistor, inductor or a transformer. For single resistor between two capacitors, half of the energy  is dissipated by the resistor. Total energy decreases to only half of the initial energy.

With a transformer between two capacitors, the loss of the energy is compensated by the amplification of voltage. For a step-up transformer, the output voltage is greater than the input voltage. With the addition of diode between the secondary coil and the capacitor (circuit of microwave oven), The output energy becomes greater than the input energy.

A step-up transformer converts low AC voltage to high voltage. With a capacitor of high voltage connected to the primary coil as input and another capacitor of zero voltage connected to the secondary coil, the second capacitor will be charged to multiple times of the input voltage if a diode or a rectifier is connected between the capacitor and the secondary coil. 

One example is the microwave oven which converts 120 volts AC to 2200 volts DC on a capacitor which becomes power source for magnetron to radiate microwave.

The electric power generated by the transformer can be calculated precisely for small load such as a resistor or capacitor.

For a resistor connected to the primary coil and another resistor connected to the secondary coil, the power of each coil increases with the number of loops but decreases with the resistance of the connected resistor.

For a capacitor connected to the primary coil and another capacitor connected to the secondary coil, the power of each coil increases with the number of loops and the capacitance of the connected capacitor.

Therefore, the output power of a transformer becomes greater than the input power if the capacitance of the load in a step-up transformer is increased.

Electricity can be exchanged between two objects through electrostatic breakdown if the voltage between two objects is high enough and the gap between two objects is small enough.

The breakdown can occur between any insulator and conductor such as PVC pipe and paper strip, shoe box and aluminum sheet , Van de Graaff generator and metal dome, Tesla coil and the air, two atoms of a conductor. Hydrogen atoms become electric dipoles in Stark effect.

As the dipole is stretched beyond limit by the external electric field, molecular bond disintegrates. The polarization becomes electrostatic breakdown. The electricity moves from one atom to next atom through breakdown. The cascading breakdown becomes electric current which can be visualized in lightning and Franklin's Bell. The bells keep ringing until the voltage between two bells becomes zero. The electric current continues until the voltage of the circuit becomes zero.

A plastic pipe can be electrified by friction to attract neutral aluminum strip and paper strip. Both strips become polarized. The attraction to the pipe becomes electrical breakdown if the strips are too close to the pipe.

The breakdown electrifies the strips with the electricity of the pipe. The attractive force becomes repulsive and repels both strips. The transition from polarization to electrical breakdown becomes the invention of the electrostatic motor. A conductive rotor between two electrodes rotates as long as there is voltage between two electrodes.

Both water and mercury react to the electrostatic force due to the polarization in water molecule and mercury atom. Aluminum foil can also be attracted to both positive and negative objects. 

The atoms of both mercury and aluminum have become electric dipoles. The electric force of each dipole polarizes nearby atoms into dipoles. A conductive rod becomes a dipole with one end positive and the other end negative.

The expansion of polarization depends on the lattice structure. With linear bond connection in conductor, the whole conductor can be polarized. With non-linear bond connection in nsulator, the polarization diminishes over distance. This is why 'charges' are localized on the surface of insulator.

The electric potential of individual atom can be visualized with Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM). The electric potential is transferred from a single atom to the scanning tip. The electric potential of an insulator produced by triboelectric effect can turn on LED in an open circuit.

There is no electron in or out of the insulator. The electric charge from the insulator is not electron but the electric potential of the atom. The electric force repels electric charges and expands the charge distribution from the source of electric potential into the electric circuit. The presence of voltage redistributes the charges and becomes electricity.

The origin of electric conduction is the expansion of charge distribution due to electric force.

The electric current to a parallel plate capacitor of an AC circuit is proportional to the capacitance. If the area of the plate is reduced, the capacitance will decrease. The current to the capacitor will also decrease. The plate can be reduced to become a thin pole.  The gap of the pole capacitor can be increased to become two monopole antennas. The capacitance decreases to near zero. There is almost no electric current in a monopole antenna.

The capacitor can also be reduced to a dipole antenna. There is little electric current in the dipole antenna. The maximum current in a microstrip antenna of the cell phone is about 0.5 nano-amperes. The signal from the antenna is not generated by electric current but by electric potential.

The electric potential can be transmitted across the capacitor from one conductive layer to another conductive layer by induction. There is no conduction across the capacitor because of the insulator layer. The transmission is carried out by the induction of electric potential. The electricity is the transmission of charge which is the electric potential of the atom.

Canal rays, also called positive rays, are emission from the anode due to high voltage. In contrast to cathode rays which are electrons, canal rays consist of inert, charged and neutral particles. The time evolution of vacuum arc shows that most of the emission from the anode move along the direction of electric field.

Due to continuous electric arc, the cathode will exhibit craters and deposits of anode material. Unlimited emission from the electrode will exist as long as high voltage is available.

The mechanical impact of the emission is strong enough to rotate a tiny paddle wheel and to propel a small rotor. The electricity has been converted into massive particles which are the emission from the electrode.

Electric arc is radiation created by rapid variation of electric potential. The emission of radiation includes electron, light, infrared and X-ray.

The emission of electron from a Crookes tube can be induced by an Oudin coil. The emission of light from a mercury arc rectifier can be initiated by an AC transformer. Electric arc can be produced by any pair of conductors.

Any insulator can become conductor due to high voltage. The light from a neon lamp is produced by the arc between two neon atoms.

Electrons can be emitted from the metal by electricity.

The electron gun is the experimental evidence that electron is not part of electric current. The electric current to the filament of electron gun is equal to the exit current out of the filament. The exit current is not reduced by the emission current of electrons from the filament.

The actual source of electrons is electricity which can generate infinite amount of light, ultraviolet, X-ray and electrons.

In Crookes tube, the electron beam is created by induction when an object of negative electric potential is near the tube. Infinite amount of electrons can be generated inside the tube by induction. Electron is not part of the tube.

There is no electron in any object that can emit infinite number of electrons.

Light can be emitted by the atom but light is not part of the atom.

Electron can be emitted by the atom but electron is not part of the atom.

The bond angle in diamond is a representation of symmetry in physics. All atoms in diamond are identical atoms. There is no variation in bond length nor bond angle between any pair of C-C bonds on a single atom.

The calculation from the symmetry shows that the bond angle should be approximately 109.47 degrees. Same symmetry can be applied to the O-H-O bond in ice. The bond angle of any pair of O-H-O bonds on a single oxygen atom is also approximately 109.47 degrees.

The bond angle in matter is determined by the symmetry in physics.

Electromigration is excellent proof that there is no electron in electric current.

A copper strip is connected between an anode and a cathode. With constant electric current, the locations of voids and hillrocks on the copper strip contradict the prediction of the hole-electron theory. A chlorine atom on silicon surface is pushed away by the tip of STM only if negative voltage is applied to the tip.

These two examples prove that electromigration is not the result of the mechanical collision between electrons and atoms. There is no electron in electric current.

Electric charge can be created by two methods.

By friction (Triboelectricity) on an insulator where charge is restricted to the contact area.

By electric field (induction) on both conductor and dielectric material.

There is no movement of charge in the insulator. The induced charge in the dielectric material is also localized. 

Therefore, charge is not a physical entity moving about the atom but an intrinsic property of the atom.

The power ratio of a transformer is defined as the maximum input power divided by the maximum output power.

The power ratio is inversely proportional to the maximum impedance of the circuit connected to the primary coil but is proportional to the maximum impedance of the circuit connected to the secondary coil. The power ratio varies with the impedance of the circuit.

For any power ratio less than 1, the output power is greater than input power. For example, the induction motor with a squirrel cage rotor.

The voltage across a resistor is determined by the electric current transmitted to the resistor.

For two capacitors and one resistor in series connection, the electric current transmitted to the resistor is the sum of individual electric current from each capacitor. Similarly, for two batteries and one resistor in series connection, the electric current to the resistor is the sum of individual electric current from each battery.

The bioelectricity is based on the same superposition of electric current. The electrocytes in the electric eel are stacked in series and parallel connection to generate electric current up to 1 ampere and voltage up to 500 volts.

Coulomb's experiment expressed the electrostatic force as a function of the distance but not electric charge.

The modern version of Coulomb's experiment measures the electric force due to high voltage power supply.

In velocity selector, the particle is accelerated by the capacitor of high voltage. In particle accelerator, particles are accelerated toward a circular aperture of high electric potential.

The electric charge is merely a theoretical concept. Millikan actually measured the electric potential of the oil droplet with the force from a capacitor of high voltage.

The actual source of electric force is the electric potential.

The electric current between capacitors inside the capacitor bank charges and discharges the capacitors.

A capacitor is 'charged' if the gradient of electric potential is established in the dielectric layer. The voltage of a 'charged' capacitor is the difference of electric potential between two surfaces of the dielectric layer. A capacitor is 'discharged' if the gradient of electric potential is eliminated from the dielectric layer. The voltage of a 'discharged' capacitor becomes zero even if one of its two terminal is connected to a high voltage source.

Marx generator is an excellent example of capacitor bank. All capacitors in Maxr generator are 'charged' in parallel connection and 'discharged' in series connection through sparks.

The direction of electric current can be precisely determined from its motion. The electric arc between a cathode and an anode can be swayed by the magnetic force. The experiment shows that the arc is fixed at the cathode and freely movable at the anode.

The electric current also becomes visible when it transmits through the air or water. The motion indicates that electric current moves from the source of higher electric potential toward the source of lower electric potential. For example, from a neutral electrode to a negative electrode.

It is impossible for electrons to be in such motion. There is no electron in the electric current.

Eddy current is electric current induced in a conductor such as pipe, ring , plate and coil exposed to gradient of magnetic field.

The magnitude of eddy current in the coil can be precisely measured with galvanometer.

During crack detection, the magnitude of eddy current in a pipe can be estimated by the input current of the electromagnet.

Eddy current in a coil can be used to calculate the magnetic force from a falling magnet through the coil.

Snell's law claims that the ratio of sine functions of two angles (incidence angle and refraction angle) is a constant.

This is not incorrect as demonstrated by two experiments. In the first experiment, light travels through the air into the glass. In the second experiment, light travels through the glass into the air. The data from both experiments verify that the ratio of two sine functions is not a constant.

Snell's law is not a valid physics law and should be renamed as Snell's theory.

The particle tracks (alpha, beta, proton) in the cloud chamber represent evidence that there is no electron in the atom.

Other evidences include the images from Transmission Electron Microscope and Scanning Tunneling Microscope.

Light can be emitted by LED but light is not part of LED. Electron can be emitted by the atom but electron is not part of the atom.

The electric current is not a "flowing current" of electrons.

1) Most electrons in the Crookes tube are blocked near the cathode and never reach the anode.

2) Kirchhoff's current law is invalid for a battery bank.

3) Faraday's law of induction contradicts a stream of electrons moving at a constant velocity if the voltage stays constant.

Kirchhoffís Current Law is applied to the battery bank of similar batteries. The battery bank is connected to a resistor and measured with a digital multimeter. The measurement of electric current from the battery bank contradicts Kirchhoffís Current Law.

Therefore, electric current can not be represented by a stream of freely moving electrons. Electric current is the transmission of electric potential through the conductive atoms.

Kirchhoffís theory of electric current can not be considered a physics law.

The electric current inside an electrochemical battery corresponds to the voltage generated by the chemical reaction in the battery. The voltage is produced by the transformation between atom and ion. The electric potential of the zinc atom is different from the electric potential of the zinc ion. Examples include Daniell cell and the vinegar battery. 

The shorter the distance between two electrodes inside the battery cell, the greater the electric current is. The battery cell itself has become a resistor regulating the electric current it generates.

The electrical property of resistor can be verified by the transmission of electric electricity through a resistor bank. The total electric current increases if more resistors are in parallel connection. The electric current decreases if more resistors are in series connection.

In the alloy such as brass, the total electric current increases if more copper atoms are in parallel connection. The electric current decreases if more zinc atoms are in random series connection. The zinc atoms are the bottleneck hindering the transmission of the electric potential through the copper atoms.

The transmission of electricity is limited by the resistor due to the presence of less conductive atom in the resistor.

The capacitor is similar to the electrophorus both physically and electrically. The only difference between them is a conductive layer. In electrophorus, the dielectric layer and the conductive layer induce electric potential to each other. Such mutual induction also happens in the capacitor. With extra conductive layer, the capacitor becomes inductive but not conductive.

The exact transmission of electric potential in the capacitor is from conductive layer through dielectric layer to conductive layer by induction. The electricity is the transmission of electric potential through the atom in the capacitor.

The electrophorus is a partial capacitor with one conductive layer absent. The electric potential can be induced to the dielectric layer by the conductive layer. The induction produces a radial distribution of electric potential in the dielectric layer if the conductive cone is positive. The distribution is concentric if the conductive cone is negative.

Therefore, the distribution of electric potential inside the dielectric layer of a capacitor is similar to the distribution in a graphite paper. The distribution may vary gradually across the thickness of the dielectric layer.

A conductor becomes an electrostatic shield if the electric potential of the conductor is kept constant. A neutral shield is a grounded conductor which can diminish electrostatic induction and electric field.

One application is the Field Mill Voltmeter in which the electric field is blocked by two grounded blades. Another application is the Faraday Cage which is a conductor with the outer surface at constant electric potential but the inner surface at zero potential. The two surfaces form a double shield so that the detection of the electric field inside the cage is almost impossible.

The electric potential of the atom in the conductor can be altered by the electrostatic induction and conduction. It can also be modified by the connection to a DC or AC source. The image of atom produced by Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy verifies that the electric potential of every atom in a conductive surface is indeed uniformly proportional to the voltage of the DC source.

The electric potential of the atom is the source of electricity.

The triboelectricity can be generated from the contact between an insulator and a conductor. 

There is more charge on the insulator and less charge on the conductor. There is no charge conservation in Triboelectric effect. 

The charge of triboelectricity can not be the electron but the atom.

The charge distribution of the conductor represents the electrostatic equilibrium established mainly by Coulomb force. 

The calculation of the total force on each charge shows that there is higher concentration of charge at both ends of a linear conductor. Consequently, the charge density is highest at the pointy area on a conductor of arbitrary geometry.

The electrostatic potential of a conductor is not uniform but depends on the geometry of the conductor.

The conductor can not be polarized electrically. By the definition of conductor, there is no voltage in the conductor. The electric potentials of two conductors are identical if two conductors are in contact with each other. The electrostatic potentials remain identical after both conductors are separated.

However, if only one conductor is subject to reverse induction then the electric potentials of these two conductors will be different from each other and may be opposite in sign.

Both the metal brush and the metal dome can be removed from Van de Graaff generator. The generator does not conduct but induct static electricity. However, the pointy geometry of the metal brush may enhance the induction.

The installation of metal brush in Van de Graaff generator originates from the illusion of flowing charges in electrostatic conduction. There is no conduction from the belt which is not a conductor.

There is no electric charge but electric potential as the charge can not be measured but only calculated from the electric potential.

The electric potential can be accumulated and enhanced by reverse induction, the reverse process of induction.

Apply induction to a conductor to induce potential. Apply conduction to the same conductor to set its potential to neutral. Apply reverse induction to the same conductor to induce the opposite potential. Belli's doubler is an application based on reverse induction. The doubler repeats the process of "induction-conduction-neutralization-reverse induction" on two conductors.

The electric potential of one conductor becomes positive and greatly enhanced while the electric potential of the other conductor becomes negative and enhanced as well.

Conduction occurs if conductive objects are in contact. The electric potential is identical for all objects in open circuit.

Without contact, the electric potential is different in each object. This is induction. 

Objects repel each other upon conduction but attract each other during induction. This is the physics of Franklin Bell. The oscillation in the bell can be replaced with rotation and the bell becomes a motor.

The sluggish movement of ions in the electrolysis is slow compared to the rapid transmission of electricity. 

The electricity is not conducted by the motion of ions. However, the movement of ion can increase if the voltage of the electrolysis increases.