Electromagnetism

The transmission of electricity is the exchange of electric potential between atoms. The direction of transmission depends on the direction of Coulomb force. The exchange of electric potential depends on the distance (between atoms) and the electric potential of each atom. The definition of electric field (V/m) can be used to describe the exchange of electric potential. The shorter the distance, the more easily the nearby atom can be electrified. 

The difference between the original potential and the electrified potential is known as voltage drop and the resistance of the resistor. As the electric potential is formed in the atom, the positive potential is repelled by a positive force while the negative potential is attracted by the positive force. As a result, electricity is transmitted in two opposite directions simultaneously.

Electricity is an intrinsic property of atom. The atom is always in one of three states: neutral, positive or negative. The atom tends to form chemical bonds with other atoms to become neutral. The neutral atom becomes positive or negative when the bond is broken or the bond angle is distorted. 

The electricity from broken chemical bond is popularly known as Triboelectricity. The electricity from distortion of bond angle is popularly known as Piezoelectricity and Flexoelectricity.

The electricity of atom can be transferred between two atoms. This is popularly known as electric current which stops at any atom that stays neutral because of chemical bond structure.

A loop antenna can detect radiation from a dipole antenna. In Hertz's experiment, the radiation was not powerful enough to create a spark in the loop antenna unless there was also a spark between two wires of the dipole antenna. The spark of the dipole antenna is electric current that generates a magnetic wave toward the loop antenna.

Hertz's spark gap transmitter is the experimental evidence that radiation is mostly magnetic wave.

Tesla coil is another experimental evidence that radiation of antenna is merely magnetic wave.

The radiation of Yagi-Uda antenna is the experimental evidence that the far-field radiation is mainly magnetic field.

The voltage distribution of a half-wavelength dipole antenna represents the fundamental resonance of standing wave. The electric field from the voltage distribution is given by Coulomb law. The magnetic field from the current distribution is given by Biot-Savart law. The electric field diminishes more than magnetic field over distance. The far-field radiation is dominated by magnetic field.

The radiation pattern of a half-wavelength dipole antenna is different from the intensity pattern of Poynting vector derived from the electromagnetic wave predicted by Maxwell'sequations which are mathematically incorrect due to singularity.

A magnet or an electret becomes mechanical antenna if it can produce fluctuating field. The antenna is rotated by a motor or attached to a pendulum. An optional shutter can be placed in front of the antenna to partially blocks the field to generate fluctuation.

The fluctuation from a magnet is magnetic field. The fluctuation from an electret is electric field. The radiation from a mechanical antenna should not be mistaken as the electromagnetic field from Maxwell's equations which are mathematically incorrect due to singularity.

The antenna can be mechanical instead of electrical. The transmitter can be a rotating magnet. A nearby loop antenna will detect the radiation from the rotating magnet. In the rest fram of the magnet, the loop antenna is in an orbit around the magnet. EMF is induced on the loop by the relative motion between the loop antenna and the stationary magnet.

The radiation from a stationary magnet is magnetic field. There is no electric field in the radiation.

Maxwell's equation is not compatible with the physics of an electrically neutral antenna.

Singularity occurs in differential equations at the locations of point charge and electric current.

Volume integral can not be evaluated if point charge is included. Surface integral can not be evaluated if electric current is included.

Maxwell's equations can not be applied to the physics for point charge nor electric current because of singularity.

Electrons can be emitted from the metal by electricity.

The electron gun is the experimental evidence that electron is not part of electric current. The electric current to the filament of electron gun is equal to the exit current out of the filament. The exit current is not reduced by the emission current of electrons from the filament.

The actual source of electrons is electricity which can generate infinite amount of light, ultraviolet, X-ray and electrons.

In Crookes tube, the electron beam is created by induction when an object of negative electric potential is near the tube. Infinite amount of electrons can be generated inside the tube by induction. Electron is not part of the tube.

There is no electron in any object that can emit infinite number of electrons.

Light can be emitted by the atom but light is not part of the atom.

Electron can be emitted by the atom but electron is not part of the atom.

Electromigration is excellent proof that there is no electron in electric current.

A copper strip is connected between an anode and a cathode. With constant electric current, the locations of voids and hillrocks on the copper strip contradict the prediction of the hole-electron theory. A chlorine atom on silicon surface is pushed away by the tip of STM only if negative voltage is applied to the tip.

These two examples prove that electromigration is not the result of the mechanical collision between electrons and atoms. There is no electron in electric current.

The particle tracks (alpha, beta, proton) in the cloud chamber represent evidence that there is no electron in the atom.

Other evidences include the images from Transmission Electron Microscope and Scanning Tunneling Microscope.

Light can be emitted by LED but light is not part of LED. Electron can be emitted by the atom but electron is not part of the atom.

Coulomb's experiment expressed the electrostatic force as a function of the distance but not electric charge.

The modern version of Coulomb's experiment measures the electric force due to high voltage power supply.

In velocity selector, the particle is accelerated by the capacitor of high voltage. In particle accelerator, particles are accelerated toward a circular aperture of high electric potential.

The electric charge is merely a theoretical concept. Millikan actually measured the electric potential of the oil droplet with the force from a capacitor of high voltage.

The actual source of electric force is the electric potential.

The electric current is not a "flowing current" of electrons.

1) Most electrons in the Crookes tube are blocked near the cathode and never reach the anode.

2) Kirchhoff's current law is invalid for a battery bank.

3) Faraday's law of induction contradicts a stream of electrons moving at a constant velocity if the voltage stays constant.

The unique property of the side-coupled cavity at Fermilab requires the synchronous particle to travel from one cell to next cell in exactly one cycle of RF oscillation. With velocity in each cell precisely determined, the acceleration can be calculated.

The representation of force can be derived from the conservation law of momentum.

The calculation of both acceleration and force confirms that the electric force in the side-coupled cavity is inversely proportional to both speed and gamma of the particle. The electric force diminishes when the speed of particle reaches the speed of light.

The expression of momentum is derived based on the conservation law of momentum for the particle beam in the particle collider.

With the correct expression of momentum, the expression of energy is derived for the kinetic energy gained from the RF cavity in the synchrotron.

The expression of magnetic force is derived based on the experimental data of the dipole magnet in Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory.

Two identical ions are put into a linear motion under the repulsive electric force between them.

To an observer whose inertial motion is perpendicular to the linear motion of ions, there appears to be magnetic field generated by the ions. However, the magnetic force does not exist because the force is conserved in all inertial reference frames. In the synchrotron, the particle beam spreads out due to the repulsive electric force within the beam. There is no magnetic force between the particles to keep the particle beam together. 

The experimental data shows that the magnetic field can not be generated by the moving charge.

The exact nature of the electric current is clarified with Faraday's law.

A rectangular loop of conductive wire with one side pushed across magnetic field at constant velocity will produce constant EMF according to Faraday's law, and constant electric current according to Ohm's law.

If the electric current was made of electrons, each electron will be under constant acceleration. The velocity of the electron would not be constant. Consequently, the electric current would not be constant and contradict the constant current produced by the constant motion.

Therefore, the electric current is not a stream of electrons moving backward.

A multilayer capacitor is constructed with N dielectric layers and N+1 conductive layers. An external DC source is connected to the two outermost conductive layers. Upon measurement, voltage is detected on all inner conductive layers. The voltage difference between any pair of conductive layers is measured with a digital multimeter.

The detection of voltage on inner conductive layers proves that voltage is not the result of charge accumulation but is the polarization of the dielectric layer due to the electric force between the conductive layers.

Ohm's law states that the electric current from a DC battery will approach infinity if the battery is connected to a resistor whose resistance approaches zero. This is physically impossible as the electric current can not exceed the maximum current from an electrical source. Ohm's law is incorrect and requires correction.

There is no electric current in the open circuit driven by either direct current or alternating current source. Examples of experimental evidence include Tesla coil, AED and household wiring system.

A monopole antenna is an open circuit. Therefore, the radiation from the antenna is created by the oscillation of the voltage, not by the electric current.

In the presence of a fluctuating magnetic field, voltage can be generated from an open-ended loop of conducting wire. The loop can be connected to a light bulb to form a closed circuit. If the electric current exists in the circuit,the resistance of the loop has to be identical to the resistance of the bulb. This is not always true.

Therefore, Ohm's law is not applicable to any electric power source such as AC transformer and DC battery.

There is no charge accumulation in the conductive layers of the capacitor.

The experimental evidence is provided by two dissectible capacitors of different shape. Each capacitor is disassembled after being charged. The conductive layers are put in contact with each other and other objects to show that there is no charge in the conductive layers. Each capacitor is re-assembled back to its original shape and discharges as usual. 

The electricity is contained in the dielectric layer of the capacitor.

The polar material is attracted by the electrostatic force due to the formation of electric dipole within the material. Water stream is attracted to both PVC pipe and balloon because water molecule is polar. Liquid mercury is attracted to the PVC pipe because mercury atom becomes polar.

The electrostatic force is also detected by the electroscope. Therefore, the electric dipole is formed within both the electroscope and the liquid mercury.

The electrostatic effect on the electroscope by the PVC pipe can be achieved by applying voltage to the electroscope with an external power supply. Therefore, voltage is the measurement of electric dipole.

The electroscope can be in parallel connection with a capacitor to measure the voltage of the capacitor. Therefore, the electric dipole is the measurement of voltage.

The triboelectric generator produces voltage with mechanical movement of an insulator between two conductors. The generator is an open circuit as these two conductors are not connected.

A light bulb can produce light if connected to the triboelectric generator. Therefore, the light bulb works in an open circuit.

The polarization in the Triboelectric effect is the evidence that electric dipole can be induced in the polar molecular structure. The electric dipole can also be induced in the presence of high voltage. Examples include liquid wax, distilled water. The force between the electric dipole and the source of high potential is greater than the gravity.

The sluggish movement of ions in the electrolysis is slow compared to the rapid transmission of electricity. 

The electricity is not conducted by the motion of ions. However, the movement of ion can increase if the voltage of the electrolysis increases.

Conduction occurs if conductive objects are in contact. The electric potential is identical for all objects in open circuit.

Without contact, the electric potential is different in each object. This is induction. 

Objects repel each other upon conduction but attract each other during induction. This is the physics of Franklin Bell. The oscillation in the bell can be replaced with rotation and the bell becomes a motor.

The electric potential can be accumulated and enhanced by reverse induction, the reverse process of induction.

Apply induction to a conductor to induce potential. Apply conduction to the same conductor to set its potential to neutral. Apply reverse induction to the same conductor to induce the opposite potential. Belli's doubler is an application based on reverse induction. The doubler repeats the process of "induction-conduction-neutralization-reverse induction" on two conductors.

The electric potential of one conductor becomes positive and greatly enhanced while the electric potential of the other conductor becomes negative and enhanced as well.

Both the metal brush and the metal dome can be removed from Van de Graaff generator. The generator does not conduct but induct static electricity. However, the pointy geometry of the metal brush may enhance the induction.

The installation of metal brush in Van de Graaff generator originates from the illusion of flowing charges in electrostatic conduction. There is no conduction from the belt which is not a conductor.

There is no electric charge but electric potential as the charge can not be measured but only calculated from the electric potential.

The conductor can not be polarized electrically. By the definition of conductor, there is no voltage in the conductor. The electric potentials of two conductors are identical if two conductors are in contact with each other. The electrostatic potentials remain identical after both conductors are separated.

However, if only one conductor is subject to reverse induction then the electric potentials of these two conductors will be different from each other and may be opposite in sign.

The charge distribution of the conductor represents the electrostatic equilibrium established mainly by Coulomb force. 

The calculation of the total force on each charge shows that there is higher concentration of charge at both ends of a linear conductor. Consequently, the charge density is highest at the pointy area on a conductor of arbitrary geometry.

The electrostatic potential of a conductor is not uniform but depends on the geometry of the conductor.

The triboelectricity can be generated from the contact between an insulator and a conductor.

There is more charge on the insulator and less charge on the conductor. There is no charge conservation in Triboelectric effect. 

The charge of triboelectricity can not be the electron but the atom.

The electric potential of the atom in the conductor can be altered by the electrostatic induction and conduction. It can also be modified by the connection to a DC or AC source. The image of atom produced by Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy verifies that the electric potential of every atom in a conductive surface is indeed uniformly proportional to the voltage of the DC source.

The electric potential of the atom is the source of electricity.

A conductor becomes an electrostatic shield if the electric potential of the conductor is kept constant. A neutral shield is a grounded conductor which can diminish electrostatic induction and electric field.

One application is the Field Mill Voltmeter in which the electric field is blocked by two grounded blades. Another application is the Faraday Cage which is a conductor with the outer surface at constant electric potential but the inner surface at zero potential. The two surfaces form a double shield so that the detection of the electric field inside the cage is almost impossible.

The electrophorus is a partial capacitor with one conductive layer absent. The electric potential can be induced to the dielectric layer by the conductive layer. The induction produces a radial distribution of electric potential in the dielectric layer if the conductive cone is positive. The distribution is concentric if the conductive cone is negative.

Therefore, the distribution of electric potential inside the dielectric layer of a capacitor is similar to the distribution in a graphite paper. The distribution may vary gradually across the thickness of the dielectric layer.

The capacitor is similar to the electrophorus both physically and electrically. The only difference between them is a conductive layer. In electrophorus, the dielectric layer and the conductive layer induce electric potential to each other. Such mutual induction also happens in the capacitor. With extra conductive layer, the capacitor becomes inductive but not conductive.

The exact transmission of electric potential in the capacitor is from conductive layer through dielectric layer to conductive layer by induction. The electricity is the transmission of electric potential through the atom in the capacitor.

The electrical property of resistor can be verified by the transmission of electric electricity through a resistor bank. The total electric current increases if more resistors are in parallel connection. The electric current decreases if more resistors are in series connection.

In the alloy such as brass, the total electric current increases if more copper atoms are in parallel connection. The electric current decreases if more zinc atoms are in random series connection. The zinc atoms are the bottleneck hindering the transmission of the electric potential through the copper atoms.

The transmission of electricity is limited by the resistor due to the presence of less conductive atom in the resistor.

The electric current inside an electrochemical battery corresponds to the voltage generated by the chemical reaction in the battery. The voltage is produced by the transformation between atom and ion. The electric potential of the zinc atom is different from the electric potential of the zinc ion. Examples include Daniell cell and the vinegar battery.

The shorter the distance between two electrodes inside the battery cell, the greater the electric current is. The battery cell itself has become a resistor regulating the electric current it generates.

Kirchhoffís Current Law is applied to the battery bank of similar batteries. The battery bank is connected to a resistor and measured with a digital multimeter. The measurement of electric current from the battery bank contradicts Kirchhoffís Current Law. 

Therefore, electric current can not be represented by a stream of freely moving electrons. Electric current is the transmission of electric potential through the conductive atoms.

Kirchhoffís theory of electric current can not be considered a physics law.