Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(1770 - 1831)
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Basic Terms
Basic Terms
Hegel's subject: It is the starting point of the thinking process, rationality leads us to overcome our own finiteness. Hegel distinguishes between Anschauung, Sensation, Verstand, rationality, Geist (spirit.) He also starts the distinction between natural sciences and human sciences. (Natur - und Geisteswissenschaften.)
Spirit: The totality of the process of becoming aware of itself. It is self-transcendence. It reaches a point where the spirit knows what knowing is, absolute knowledge, Ch 8 of the Phenomenology. "Dass es weiss, und was es weiss," (that it knows, and what it knows) becomes one.
Three forms of Spirit: subjective, objective, absolute.
The first is subjective spirit, which takes an interest in the act of thought by recapitulating several steps of the Phenomenology of Spirit. History of metaphysics is included.
The second is objective spirit, which is found in morality, mores, family structure and the institutions of state.
The third is absolute spirit, or spirit finally freely revealed to itself. Hegel saw this at work in three domains: art, religion, and philosophy.
From being to becoming. He replaces metaphysics with a philosophy of the spirit, because he shifts his analysis from being to becoming: thinking as activity, spiraling upward towards more self-consciousness, until it reaches totality, and awareness of being part of absolute spirit.
History: This approach shifts the view of history from the absorption in the past to the anticipation of the future, when it will be more clear that "the rational is real, and the real is rational." History moves towards more freedom, even if there are some setbacks on the way.
Contradictions are not a problem: They are moments that allow for greater unity because will be absorbed via a dialectic of the real, leading to the identity of difference and identity.
Logic: metaphysics becomes logic, but logic also becomes metaphysics. Hegel calls for a new logic to supplement Aristotle's ancient logic. It is too static and cannot capture the process of becoming adequately.
The law of identity: 'Whatever is, is.' For all a: a = a. Hegel: a is not just what it is. By stating it, you already made an intellectual movement.
Law of non-contradiction: 'Nothing can both be and not be.' In other words: "two or more contradictory statements cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time": ¬(A∧¬A). Hegel: Everything includes its own negation. The representation is not the object, the object includes its past and its future.
Religion: Hegel says that religion raises itself "to the consideration of infinity, but it unfortunately posits this infinity outside of itself in a transcendent world distinct from the finite." Yet such a representation, argues Hegel, makes the infinite finite since it posits, on the one hand, the finite, and on the other, the infinite. It is a projection that pertains to the order of representation, legitimate for religion, but not for philosophy in which the idea can no longer use images and representations, but must understand itself only in the pure light of the concept. "Vernunftreligion."
Summary of the "Phenomenology of Spirit," 1807
Summary of the "Phenomenology of Spirit," 1807
Hegel's "Phenomenology of Spirit" is a philosophical work that examines the development of human consciousness and self-awareness through various stages. In simpler terms, the book takes the reader on a journey of the human spirit as it grows from a basic level of understanding to a more complex and unified perception of reality. To make the ideas easier to understand, let's explore a few examples of Hegel's arguments within the different stages of this journey:
Sense-certainty: In this initial stage, consciousness experiences the world in a simple and direct way, much like a child encountering the world for the first time. For example, a person in this stage might see an apple and just perceive it as a red object without understanding its properties or relations to other objects.
Perception: As consciousness develops, it begins to recognize objects as distinct entities with specific properties. In the case of the apple, the person now understands that the red object is an apple, which has a particular taste, texture, and can be eaten.
Understanding: In this stage, the person starts to grasp abstract concepts and categories. For instance, they may realize that the apple is a fruit and belongs to a larger category of fruits, which share certain characteristics such as being edible and containing seeds.
Self-consciousness: Here, the individual becomes aware of themselves as a separate entity. For example, they may recognize that they are the one eating the apple, and they can think about their thoughts and feelings related to the experience.
Reason: Rational thought develops, allowing the person to think systematically about the world. They may now ponder questions like why apples grow on trees, what conditions are needed for apple trees to thrive, and how apples fit into the broader ecosystem.
Spirit: In this stage, the individual transcends their subjective perspective and sees themselves as part of a broader social and historical context. They might appreciate the role of apples in cultural traditions, such as apple pie in American culture or the myth of the apple in the Garden of Eden.
Religion: The person tries to understand and connect with the ultimate reality or divine. They may consider the spiritual or religious significance of the apple, like its use as a symbol of knowledge or temptation in various religious stories.
Absolute knowing: At this final stage, the individual achieves a complete understanding of reality, realizing that their subjective experience and the objective world are expressions of the same absolute spirit. They may come to see the apple not just as a separate object but as part of the interconnected whole of reality.
By examining these different stages of consciousness, Hegel's "Phenomenology of Spirit" offers a comprehensive account of human consciousness and its development, emphasizing the interconnectedness of individual experience, history, culture, and society.
Summary of "Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences," (1817)
Summary of "Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences," (1817)
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's "Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences" is a comprehensive and systematic work that encompasses the full scope of his philosophical thought. The Encyclopedia is organized into three main parts: the Science of Logic, the Philosophy of Nature, and the Philosophy of Spirit. This summary aims to provide an overview of the text's core ideas, their connections to other philosophers, and some interpretations.
Science of Logic
The Science of Logic serves as the foundation of Hegel's philosophical system. It presents an abstract analysis of being, essence, and concept, which are essential components of reality. Hegel's dialectical method, which involves the development of ideas through contradiction and synthesis, is a central feature of the Science of Logic. This method has been influenced by earlier philosophers, such as Kant, who introduced the idea of antinomies - contradictions between equally valid principles. Hegel's system has been interpreted as an attempt to reconcile and synthesize these antinomies.
Philosophy of Nature
The Philosophy of Nature is Hegel's attempt to bridge the gap between the abstract concepts in the Science of Logic and the concrete reality of the world. This part of the Encyclopedia explores the development of nature, from its most basic elements to more complex organic systems. Hegel's view of nature as a dynamic, evolving process has connections to the work of philosophers such as Spinoza and Schelling. Some interpretations suggest that the Philosophy of Nature reflects Hegel's belief in the inherent rationality of the natural world, as well as his conviction that human beings are an integral part of this world.
Philosophy of Spirit
The Philosophy of Spirit explores the development of human consciousness and its various expressions, such as art, religion, and philosophy. This part of the Encyclopedia is influenced by German Idealism, especially the works of Fichte and Kant, who emphasized the role of the individual in shaping their own reality. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, which is embedded within the Philosophy of Spirit, is often seen as a response to Kant's concept of the "thing-in-itself," the unknowable reality that lies beyond human experience. Hegel proposes that human consciousness evolves through a dialectical process, ultimately reaching a state of "absolute knowing," in which individuals become aware of their own role in the creation of reality.
Hegel's "Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences" has had a profound influence on subsequent philosophers, particularly those within the German Idealist tradition, such as Schelling and Fichte. However, his ideas have also been critiqued and developed by philosophers from other traditions, including Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. Some interpretations of Hegel's work emphasize the importance of dialectics and synthesis, while others focus on the historical and social dimensions of his thought. Despite these diverse interpretations, the Encyclopedia remains a crucial text for understanding Hegel's philosophical system and its place within the broader history of philosophy.
Quotes
Quotes
Freedom
"Freedom, says Hegel passionately, is “spirit’s only goal” (der einzige Zweck des Geistes). It is the motor of history and the reason for all conflicts; all oppression in history is the history of the repression of freedom." (Grondin, Metaphysics, p. 188)
What is Dialectic, according to Hegel? Here is what Hegel says, for example, in the Preface to the Phenomenology:
"But scientific knowledge (Erkennen) demands, on the contrary, that one give himself (übergeben) to the life of the object (Gegenstandes) or, to say the same thing in different words, that one have before oneself and express in speech (auszusprechen) the inner necessity of this object. By thus plunging (sich vertiefend) into its object, this knowledge forgets that overview (Übersicht) [thought to be possible from the outside] which is [in reality] only knowledge’s (Wissens) own face reflected back into itself from the content. But having plunged into the matter and progressing (fortgehend) in the [dialectical] movement of this matter, scientific knowledge comes back into itself; but not before the filling (Erfüllung) or the content [of the thought] gathers itself back into itself, simplifies itself to specific determination (Bestimmtheit), lowers itself to [being] an aspect (Seite) [merely] of an empirical-existence (Daseins) [the other aspect being thought], and transforms itself (übergeht) into its superior (höhere) truth [or revealed reality]. By that very process, the simple-or-undivided Whole (Ganze) which has an overview of itself (sich übersehende) itself emerges from the richness [of the diversity] in which its reflection [into itself] seemed lost."
The Conclusion – End of the Introduction. Definition of Dialectic.
Hegelian Dialectic is not a method of research or of philosophical exposition, but the adequate description of the structure of Being, and of the realization and appearance of Being as well. To say that Being is dialectical is first to say (on the ontological level) that it is a totality that implies Identity and Negativity. Next, it is to say (on the metaphysical level) that Being realizes itself not only as natural World, but also as a historical (or human) World, these two Worlds exhausting the totality of the objective-real (there is no divine World). It is finally to say (on the phenomenological level) that the objective-real empirically exists and appears not only as inanimate thing, plant, and animal, but also as essentially temporal or mortal historical free individual (who fights and who works). Or, to put it otherwise, to say that there is Totality, or Mediation, or dialectical Overcoming, is to say that in addition to given-Being, there is also creative Action which ends in a Product. (From Alexandre Kojève: The Dialectic of the Real and the Phenomenological Method in Hegel)
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