ASIAN ART: CHINA

Many people in the West didn't really understand the power and beauty of Chinese culture until they saw it on display in the opening ceremonies of the 2008 Olympics, which took place in Beijing. The Chinese performances were masterpieces of design and showmanship.

OBJECTIVES

• Discuss four eras of Chinese history.

• Understand something of Chinese cultural principles.

• Explain the history and influence of Buddhism in China.

• Describe the Great Wall of China and something of its history.

• Identify characteristics of Chinese landscape painting.

• Explain the importance of textile art in China.

• Describe the basic structure and purpose of pagodas.

VOCABULARY

CHINA — A CULTURAL GIANT

With more than a billion people, China has the largest population of any country on the planet. It's also the oldest continuing civilization in the world. Until 1912, the land was governed by a succession of emperors. Mandarin Chinese is the official language of China; however, there are more than two hundred recorded languages still in use today.

The underlying principle of Chinese culture is "harmonious balance." Reflecting this principle, Chinese art balances long-standing traditions with new innovations. Ideas from home and abroad are balanced, as well as religious and secular images.

A Brief History of Chinese Art

The earliest patrons of the arts were China's emperors. They hired artists and architects and commissioned them to do work, which led to the development of the "Imperial styles." A particular royal family might profoundly impact the course of Chinese art. Because the dynastic rulers were interested in preserving tradition to maintain their legitimacy, artistic traditions incorporated any new innovations. However, there were always amateur artists, often retired or exiled officials, who did not have to abide by the rules of the court, and their work displays a more individualistic style.

Like the Egyptians, China's earliest art works from the Shang to the Han dynasties focused on the cult of the dead. The underground burial tombs of the kings were lavishly decorated and contained bronze vessels, jade, and ceramic objects. Scenes of daily life or popular legends were either carved or painted on the walls. Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, even had a Terracotta Army created beginning around 246 BC to protect him in his afterlife. (Around 100 BC, emperors started replacing statues at royal tombs with spirit roads, which were avenues of stone monuments and figures.)

It would not be possible to cover 3,000 years of art history in this introductory course, so we'll briefly highlight four eras:

• Shang Dynasty (1600 — 1050 BC)

• T'ang Dynasty (618 — 906)

• Ming Dynasty (1368 — 1644)

• The Twentieth Century

SHANG DYNASTY (1600 — 1050 BC)

During the Bronze Age, the Shang people began as a clan of Neolithic villagers in the central Chinese province of Henan and gradually developed the first great dynasty.

Much has been lost from this era; however, because Shang royalty believed they would need material possessions in the afterlife, archaeologists have found many artifacts such as jade ornamentation and ceramic and bronze vessels at burial sites, sometimes in elaborate tombs. Archaeologists have also learned much about the dynasty through oracle bones, which were used for divine purposes. The bones bear characters that were part of the Oracle Script, the first known written form of communication. After being inscribed, the bones were heated until crack lines appeared. A diviner would then pose a question and interpret the crack lines for answers. When the predicted event occurred, the date of the occurrence was also inscribed on the bone, making the bone a historical document.

Religious rituals required special containers for food and wine, which spurred the production of vessels with increasingly elaborate decoration often in the shape of birds, as seen in the wine container in the shape of an owl, or other animals. Because of this demand, the Shang made rapid strides in the technology of metallurgy. 

Buddhism

Buddhism was introduced from India in the fourth century. This new belief system brought in new styles of architecture, sculpture, and painting. Indian Buddhists transported small statues to China. As the religion grew, it exerted a powerful influence over the art and architecture of the culture. Murals on sacred topics covered the walls of temples built in caves at Dunhuang.

In addition to small sculptures and paintings, artists also created monumental wooden and stone sculptures of Buddhist gods.

In architecture, wooden pagodas blended the Indian stupa and the Han-dynasty tower.

Notes

Check out this gilt bronze altarpiece from the Northern Wei Dynasty dedicated to Buddha. 

THE T’ANG DYNASTY AND MING DYNASTY

T'ang Dynasty (618-906)

The T'ang period is known as China's Golden Age. In this period of immense cultural achievement, the country was consolidated, and an era of prosperity ensued. During this time, the arts (from music and poetry to painting and ceramics) flourished.

Although Buddhists were persecuted during this period, the religion still played a role in China's art as you can see from this monumental stone sculpture. 

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

The Ming Dynasty established the royal painting academy. The decorative arts were especially prized during this era. The beautiful blue and red Ming vases were in demand around the globe. Glazing and firing techniques improved dramatically.

Read this article at the Metropolitan Museum of Art website.

The Great Wall of China

Around 200 BC during the Qin Dynasty, a great wall was built to protect the empire from northern invaders, but the wall eroded over the centuries. The Great Wall of China that we know today was built by the army during the Ming Dynasty under the rule of Qi Jiguang after several defeats by Mongol armies. (The Mongols had actually ruled China for a period of time before the Ming Dynasty.)

CHINESE ART IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The Ch’ing (also Qing) Dynasty lasted from 1644 to 1911, when it fell and was replaced by China’s first republic. As China entered the 20th century, Western ideas began to influence not just the government but also the arts. Chinese artists traveled and studied abroad. Painters adopted Western techniques of brushstroke, color and perspective. They also incorporated abstraction into their work.

When the Communist revolution occurred under Mao Zedong, Chinese art became an instrument of the new People’s Republic; the only subject matter that received support was that which emphasized the new social order. During the Cultural Revolution, the Red Guard destroyed artifacts and paintings that represented traditional culture.

On the other hand, traditional folk arts, such as weaving, jewelry making and wood-block printing, were honored.

Mao Zedong died in 1976. Even before he died, Chinese artists were freer to express themselves in non-political ways.

Today there is a movement of avant-garde artists such as Ai Weiwei. Ai uses art, film, and design to convey his ideas. He was one of the designers of the Bird’s Nest Stadium for the 2008 Olympics and created the woven design so admired for its simplicity and beauty.

But later, for political reasons, Ai repudiated the whole idea of the Olympics. He was arrested in 2011 for using art to express his grievances against the government. It seems that politics and Chinese art are once again connected, but this time artists such as Ai are speaking out against the government. 

THREE MAJOR TYPES OF CHINESE ART

Landscape Painting

A crucial role for early Chinese emperors was to maintain the harmony between nature and humanity. In order to fulfill this role, court artists were commissioned to paint landscapes that would be used in ceremonies. Some of the greatest landscape painters, however, were not members of the court. They were Taoist recluses. Later, a group of Confucian artists developed a theory of painting that dictated that painting was an opportunity to cultivate one's spiritual side.

Wang Meng's paintings have no single compositional focus. The horizon is not visible, expressing the Taoist idea that "Beyond mountains, there are more mountains . . . Beyond trees, there are yet more trees."

Notes

Read the following article to get an overview of Chinese landscape painting. Be sure to note artistic tools and styles.

Chinese Landscaping

Visit the Metropolitan Museum of Art website for an example of Chinese landscape painting in the twentieth century:

Textiles

According to legend, Yuen Fei, the concubine of an Emperor who ruled in 2600 BC, discovered silk by dropping a cocoon into hot tea where it unraveled. Since that time she has been worshipped as the goddess of silk worms. Silk is produced by a blind flightless moth. The moth lays eggs, which become worms. The worms eat mulberry leaves and then produce raw silk. China continues to be the world's leading producer of the material.

The Ming treasured the past. They often used themes from ancient works in their arts, including their woven textiles. Although their production methods were quite advanced, the actual subject matter depicted on the robes and tapestries harkened back to earlier dynasties. Many Ming officials adopted ancient styles of dress. Dragon robes were the standard attire for the court, and the emperor reserved the right to wear robes covered with archaic Taoist motifs.

The Pagoda

Pagodas are an integration of Indian architecture and traditional Chinese architectural styles. The dome-shaped steeple characteristic of the pagoda came from Indian stupas, or funerary monuments.

Statues of the Buddha were often enshrined in the body of the pagoda. 

LET'S REVIEW!

In this lesson you have learned about the following topics:

• Chinese art has been an integral part of the civilization since its beginning.

• During the Shang Dynasty, art was often put in the service of making sure that kings were happy in the afterlife.

• Buddhism changed the culture to one that was more interested in life than death, and many works of art dedicated to Buddha were created.

• The T'ang Dynasty was the Golden Age of Chinese art.

• During the Ming Dynasty, new technologies allowed for greater creativity, especially in the area of ceramics.

• During the twentieth century, art was a political vehicle for advancing the policies of Chairman Mao. After his death, art became more expressive and less political.

• Chinese landscape painting has been an outlet for religious feeling and for personal expression for many centuries.

• Chinese textile art was enhanced by the silk trade and by the desire of the royal families for beautiful robes.

• Pagodas were built to house Buddhist relics and are a unique form of Chinese architecture that still inspires awe.

Take the following quiz before moving on.