#30 THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND NEOCLASSICISM

You already know what happened in 1776. That was the year the British colonies of America declared their independence from Mother England. But what led them to do this extraordinary act?

The American Revolution could never have happened without the ideas that were being touted in Europe for the previous century. Freedom, equality, the rights of man — these ideas are products of the Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason.

In this lesson you'll learn more about the Enlightenment and the Neoclassical period of art, that was directly influenced by it.

OBJECTIVES

Discuss the ideas of the Enlightenment.
Explain the turn in art to Neoclassicism.
Review the Greek and Roman ideals that so fascinated the Enlightenment.
Describe Neoclassical architecture.
Identify characteristics of the work of Angelica Kauffmann and Jacques-Louis David.

VOCABULARY

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

"There are three principal means of acquiring knowledge... observation of nature, reflection, and experimentation. Observation collects facts; reflection combines them; experimentation verifies the result of that combination." Denis Didero

During the eighteenth century before the French Revolution, the ideals of reason, science, and respect for humanity came to dominate European culture. Isaac Newton's discovery of the force of gravity was an exciting unveiling of the laws of the universe. People came to believe that science and reason could answer all questions. They were no longer content to accept things on faith alone, and many no longer turned to religion, mythology or tradition for the answers to their big questions about the world around them. Philosophers and scholars put their faith in human reason rather than in any supernatural force. The intellectuals of the Enlightenment demanded scientific proof to explain the ways of the universe. This was called the doctrine of empiricism.

While Newton emphasized tangible evidence, the philosopher John Locke also wrote that what we know comes to us from our own experiences and through our own senses, and it is from these experiences and perceptions that we form our ideas.

Many of these ideas were discussed by men and women in French salons, where they were often debated and made public.

The discovery of truth through observing nature became of paramount importance. German philosopher Immanuel Kant rallied his contemporaries with the motto: "Dare to know." These ideas are an outgrowth of humanism, which you learned about in an earlier lesson.

A French writer named Voltaire helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

Through plays, poems, essays, pamphlets and other writings, Voltaire attacked the privileges of the nobility and the church. Voltaire opposed the tyranny of church and state. He despised religious intolerance and paved the way for both the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

NEOCLASSICISM

One of Boucher's many paintings of nude women

The Enlightenment brought forth new ideas, ideas that were not embraced by the aristocracy but rather by the middle class intelligentsia. For obvious reasons, this group of artists and scholars opposed the decadent lifestyle of the aristocracy, which was reflected in the art of Rococo and the sumptuous gardens and palaces in which they lived. This new class of intellectuals did not believe in "art for art's sake," but believed that art should have an educational and moral purpose.

Do you remember the Rococo artist François Boucher, who liked to paint voluptuous nudes?

Diderot, one of the French intellectual writers of the period, absolutely hated his work. He wrote a review in which he stated that in Boucher's works "degradation of taste, color, composition, character, expression, and drawing have kept pace with moral depravity."* The new art had to have a new morality. And in this new world, ordinary people were the heroic ones. One needn't be a pope or a knight to be a moral, heroic person.

ANCIENT GREECE AND THE AGE OF REASON

The art of the Age of Reason had a new morality based on an old civilization: classical Greece. In the Greek and Roman ideals, the Enlightenment thinkers found those hallmarks you have already learned about:

noble simplicity
perfection
harmony
logic
solemnity
morality

In both France and the United States, the new democratic governments chose to associate their governments with the democracy of ancient Greece by turning to neoclassicism for their buildings and public art. The National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. exemplifies the style borrowed from the ancient Greeks.

Much classical architecture had turned to ruins, but in 1738 and 1748, respectively, two archeological finds provided the West with a much greater sense of the ancient glories.

The first was the excavation of Herculaneum, a Roman town, buried in a volcanic eruption in 79 AD.

The second event was the discovery of Pompeii, which had also been buried by volcanic material.

Johann Joachim Winckelmann, the first modern art historian, studied ancient Greek and Roman art. Through his writings he encouraged artists and architects to use the ancient principles in their work and yet to make it their own.

He believed that Greek art represented the ideal in art, and his beliefs had enormous influence on the artists of his day. Winckelmann wrote two important treatises on historical art. By creating a system of description and classification, he established the modern method of the categorization of art history. Another factor that helped spread the neoclassical tastes was the growth of salons. In the 18th century, most French preferred the old masters to contemporary artists. So the French Academy began to hold salons to create interest in contemporary art. They held an annual event to showcase contemporary artists, which was called "The Salon." But there were also informal salons, in which debates and discussions about art, literature and politics were common.

ARCHITECTURE

In America, Neoclassicism, also known as the Federal style, was the ideal between 1780 and 1820. You can see it here in the Massachusetts Statehouse in Boston (completed 1798). — Wikimedia

In the 18th century, when archaeologists and scholars began to excavate ancient cities in Greece and Italy, the findings there were a revelation to the historians and artists of the neoclassical period. The classical ruins had a profound influence on the design of buildings in Europe and in the United States. In architecture, the artists were obsessed with trying to create order. Columns were no longer decorative, but were there for a reason. Freestanding columns gave a new morality to architecture. Even before the 18th century this trend can be seen in the East Front façade of the Louvre, the famous museum in Paris. In 1664, French engineer and architect Claude Perrault and two others won the competition to build the East Front. The Louvre colonnade is an impressive work with strong columns that serve as structural supports. The design emphasizes order and reason.

Thomas Jefferson was also influenced by the Neoclassical style. His home in Virginia is called Monticello, which in Italian means "little mountain." Jefferson was fascinated with Greco-Roman art and especially with the Roman architect Palladio. Jefferson believed the rationalism of neoclassical architecture reflected the ideals of the new American republic.

Look at the image of the home that Jefferson designed. It is patterned after a villa designed for a wealthy Venetian by Palladio. Notice the simplicity of the Greek columns, the exterior decoration frieze, the round arches and the dome, which is reminiscent of the Pantheon.

PAINTERS

The art historian Winckelmann lived in Rome along with a number of foreign painters. One of them was an American named Benjamin West. Winckelmann advised these artists to abandon the Baroque and Rococo designs and to strive for simple compositions, showing figures in calm, static poses as if they were antique statues. West spent three years in Rome, and his experience inspired several paintings, including his famous painting Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus (1768)

Notice the attention to architecture in the background.

Neoclassicism was not limited to Winckelmann's companions. The paintings of Angelica Kauffmann, who lived from 1741 to 1807 and spent most of her time in England, reflect the same fascination with antiquity.

Notes

Look at the painting Venus convinces Helen to go with Paris and in your online notes, list the elements that reflect neoclassicism.

The great genius of Neoclassical painting is French painter Jacques Louis David (pronounced Da-veed). An enthusiastic participant in the French Revolution, he painted pictures that helped promote the cause of revolution. He turned to Roman subjects to portray the ideals of stoicism and patriotism. Study the Oath of the Horatii (1784-85)

Jacques-Louis David's The Oath of the Horatii (1872). — Wikimedia

Notice the sense of balance created by the three arches in the background. The figures have a statuesque quality.

Notes

Write a short paragraph in your online notes tool about the composition of the Oath of the Horatii. Is it logical and ordered? Or is it chaotic and disordered? What about the human figures? Are they athletic or soft looking? Notice the quality of light. Would you say it is soft and diffused or harsh?

Jacques-Louis David took these ancient ideas and applied them to one of his most famous paintings, The Death of Marat. In this painting he has taken the subject of a revolutionary hero who has died for a cause a very classical and heroic theme. But for David this was personal.

Go the Boston College website and read about Jacques-Louis David and his famous painting.

As you look at the picture, notice the combination of simplicity and grandeur. Look also at the geometric composition, the simple palette, and the clearly organized spaces. You will notice that the figures are clearly defined and evoke a noble simplicity. There are no details that interfere with the message.

After the Revolution proved a failure, David was thrown in jail. But upon his release, he was commissioned by Napoleon to create works that celebrated worldly splendor and power.

SCULPTURE

Sculpture

When Napoleon rose to power after the chaos and disorder of the French Revolution, he sought to align his own reputation with that of the ancient Roman Empire. Therefore, he sought out the greatest sculptor then working in the neoclassical tradition: the Italian Antonio Canova.

Study the statue, The Three Graces, at the website of the Victoria and Albert Museum and read the accompanying text. What are the names of the three Graces and what do they represent? Answer: Thalia (youth and beauty) is accompanied by Euphrosyne (mirth), and Aglaia (elegance) Canova was a member of the Rome circle when he left to become Napoleon's sculptor. In his work, he attempted to recreate the purity and seriousness of classical art.

He sculpted numerous images of Napoleon and his family, including a semi-nude statue of the emperor's sister Pauline as Venus, the goddess of love.

Pauline's husband kept the statue out of the public eye out of concern for her reputation. The sculpture shows the classical mode in the Greek pose and the graceful drapery around her body, but there is also evidence of the influence of naturalism as well. Notice the realistic looking folds in the couch and in the drapery underneath.

LET'S REVIEW!

In this lesson, you have covered the following concepts:

The eighteenth century was a time of major political upheaval, when the middle class grew larger, becoming richer and better educated, and demanded freedom from oppressive policies of the church and state
In the United States of America, the Constitution also demanded a separation of church and state
The ideals of the Enlightenment took root in Neoclassical art; artists working in the Neoclassical style looked to ancient Greece and Rome for their inspiration
They abandoned the ornate opulence of the Baroque and Rococo periods and instead focused on creating clean, balanced compositions
The figures in these artworks tended to be heroic, and the work typically carried a moral meaning.

Complete the following Quiz

#30 THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND NEOCLASSICISM QUIZ

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