History of Instructional Technology

Why is this important?

The history of instructional technology is important to know and to gain an understanding of how instructional technology evolved. Over the years as technology became more efficient and more impactful, this also impacted instructional technology theories, how we communicate, and how we work post arrival of the internet. The internet in particular played a critical role in instructional technology for education and opened up new opportunities for those in the Instructional Technologist and Instructional Design field.

Timeline - 1905-2010

1905: The first school museum opens in St. Louis, MO.

It contains visual aids to instruction such as photographs, stereographs, slides, films, prints, charts, and other materials for use by teachers across the district to supplement lessons.(Carroll, R)

1910: Visual Instruction

In 1910, the first set of instructional films was published, leading school districts to adopt these films as a supplement teaching resource for students. This increased the popularity in the Visual Instruction Movement of the time (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018).

Visual Instruction Movement and Instructional Films “The first catalog of instructional films is published. The visual instruction movement incorporates film into the curriculum, beginning with the public schools of Rochester, NY.” (Carroll,R)

1920s and 1930s: Audiovisual Instruction

The 1920s and 30s saw an increase in the popularity of instructional media through the use of radio, sound broadcasting, and sound motion pictures. During this decade several textbooks were published on this topic (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018).

1923: The National Education Association or the NEA creates the Division of Visual Instruction

The National Education Association or the NEA creates the Division of Visual Instruction or the DVI as new types of media are becoming popular to make improvements to learning. The creation of the DVI led to various other organizations forming all surrounding the popularity of instructional technology (AECT In the 20th Century: A Brief History, 2001).

The Department of Visual Instruction was established as three professional organizations merged. The resulting organization is now called the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) and continues to shape the field of instructional design and technology (AECT In the 20th Century: A Brief History, 2001).

1926: Sidney Pressey and His Machine

In the early 1920s Sidney Pressey, an educational psychology professor at Ohio State University, developed a machine to provide drill and practice items to students in his introductory courses. (Cakir, S)

1941: The US government established the Division of Visual Aids for War Training

The United States established the Division of Visual Aids for War Training. This division developed over 457 Training films, 432 Silent Films and 457 Manuals to help train soldiers for WWII. These programs were able to reduce training time and increase participation without sacrificing the effectiveness of the training (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018).

In 1941, the United States government created the Division of Visual Aids for War Training producing 457 training videos. While these videos supplemented hands-on learning that usually takes place in training, they still produced effective results while decreasing the time it usually takes to train (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018).

Mid 1940s: Introduction of the role of Instructional Technologist

The increased role of video and other media in military training brought about a new role, the Instructional Technologist. It was during this time that the roles of subject matter expert, producer, and IT separated to form the instructional development team (Anglin, 1991).

1946: Edgar Dale develops the “Cone of Experience”

Edgar Dale, an expert in audiovisual education, introduced the Cone of Experience in his book, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching. This visual explains how teaching strategies provide the learner with differing levels of abstract/concrete experiences. He later described the importance of this concept by connecting memory/retention with more concrete teaching methods. This was important to the field as it supported the use of visuals media during instruction to help create more concrete experiences for students (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018).

1949: Communications Theory Beginnings

Interest in various theories or models of communication, such as the models put forth by Shannon and Weaver (1949) (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018)

1937 - Visualizing the Curriculum published

This book is among the first to explicitly recognize the importance of the use of visual aids in teaching and learning. Definition of a visual aid as “any picture, model, object, or device which provides concrete visual experience to the learner for the purpose of (1) introducing, building up, enriching, or clarifying abstract concepts, (2) developing desirable attitudes, and (3) stimulating further activity on the part of the learner” (Hoban et al., 1937, p.9). This book is one of the early indicators that forms of technology integration was being considered a form of learning support.

Training films were used to prepare the U.S. Civilians for work in the industry. The importance of this movement is that training time was productive in that time wasn’t lost in the field, and since the films were appealing, absenteeism was not an issue. (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018).

Radio 1906: The first voice and music signals heard over waves were transmitted in Dec of 1906. Radio interest grew during the war with the ability to listen to War related broadcast. Other means of radio use included news subscribers, advertisements, educational means etc.

The first formal courses in radio education at colleges and universities occurred during 1925-1935 (Instructional Technology History Overview)

Lantern Slides: The lantern slide is a transparency image that can be projected. In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer published his wet process, which enabled details to be captured in higher quality, using cheaper materials and shorter exposure periods. Dry plates were later invented in the 1880s. Dry plates could be prepared in advance and did not require chemicals and equipment or a dark room.

Equipment during the 1940’s are listed below.

Motion picture projectors, slides, photographs, films, lantern slide projectors

Emergence of Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)

In the 1950s researchers at IBM develop the first CAI authoring language, laying the groundwork for later widespread use (Reiser & Dempsey, 2017). Instructional programming harnessed the computer power of calculation to teach drill materials and score tests, but still lacked interactivity until later generations (Gentile, 1967). Early CAI included the use of computers in military flight simulation. The early 1960s saw the beginnings of CAI used in public schools and universities. CAI in schools and universities did not really take off until the 1980’s, when microcomputers made the technology more accessible.

1950s- Flight Simulators

The first flight simulators were developed in the 1950s. They became quite popular for military training. As a result, the Department of Defense spent a large amount of money to improve flight simulators, and for research to develop simulators in other training areas. The nature of the military is to consistently seek to improve technology for better training. Therefore, the funding of simulators was a great boost to the instructional technology market. In fact, simulators are part of the history of virtual reality technology. Today, a lot of research is being done to develop and improve virtual reality products, not just for entertainment, but also for the field of instructional technology.

1952 – Instructional Television

The Federal Communications Commission set aside 242 television channels for educational purposes. Growth was rapid and by 1960 there were more than fifty stations presenting instructional programs. With the funding provided by the Ford Foundation closed-circuit television systems were developed for classrooms at all grade levels to include large-scale experimental research programs at junior colleges and universities.

Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. Pearson.

1954 – B.F. Skinner introduced “Programmed Instruction”

Skinner’s elaboration of the theory of reinforcement and advocacy for its application to learning had powerful implications for the field of instructional development. This movement affirmed the feasibility of self-pacing and mastery learning along with the need for carefully constructed materials.

Shrock, S. A. (1995). A brief history of instructional development. Instructional technology: Past, present, and future, 2, 11-19. http://bsuipt595.pbworks.com/f/schrock.pdf (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

1967 – Handheld Calculator

Texas Instruments invents the world’s first handheld electronic calculator. It was small enough to fit in to the palm of your hand yet powerful enough to perform basic math functions.

Texas Instruments. (n.d.). 50 Years of Innovation. Texas Instrument. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from https://education.ti.com/en/snapapp/timeline (Links to an external site.)

Resources for History of Ed Tech:Molnar, A. (1997). Computers in Education: A Brief History. THE Journal. https://thejournal.com/Articles/1997/06/01/Computers-in-Education-A-Brief-History.aspx?Page=1 (Links to an external site.)

Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. Pearson.

Shrock, S. A. (1995). A brief history of instructional development. Instructional technology: Past, present, and future, 2, 11-19. http://bsuipt595.pbworks.com/f/schrock.pdf (Links to an external site.)

1965| Timeline of Computer History | Computer History Museum. (2010). Computerhistory.org. https://www.computerhistory.org/internethistory/1960s/ (Links to an external site.)

Texas Instruments. (n.d.). 50 Years of Innovation. Texas Instrument. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from https://education.ti.com/en/snapapp/timelineHaran, M. (2015, May 29). A History of Education Technology. The Institute of Progressive Education and Learning. (Links to an external site.)http://institute-of-progressive-education-and-learning.org/a-history-of-education-technology (Links to an external site.) (Links to an external site.). (Links to an external site.)

Instructional Television

While the television did not start here as a medium, it did gain notable interest in 1950s and 1960s. The FCC would set aside 242 channels for educational purposes, and the Ford Foundation would invest an estimated more than $170 million into educational television projects. While the movement of instructional television would damper in the late 1960s, it set a foundation for today’s instructional delivery.

Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. Pearson.

Programmed Self Instruction

Also in the 1960s, programmed or self-instruction modules begun. The first ones were developed from behaviorism theories. The modules include clear objectives, small segments of training placed together into one segmented whole, interactive response with feedback and are self-paced. This type of instruction is still popular in the military.

ARPANET Was Founded

In 1969 ARPANET was founded by the Department of Defense. ARPANET is important because it is the origins of the internet. This is important for instructional technology because the internet makes distance education as we know it today possible. By the end of 1969, there were five ARPANET sites: DOD, Stanford, UCLA, UC-SB and University of Utah. Although after the end of our era, the initial work in the 1960s resulted in 15 ARPANET sites being in operation by 1971.

1970 - Handheld Calculator Invented

Calculators paved the way for the way that math is done as a whole. Since 1970, when they became more accessible, the way that we have learned has been different. From the instructional technology aspect of things, the automation of math led to parents buying toys for their children that could teach them from that aspect. In addition, "Educators asked how much students should even learn written procedures for multiplication, division, and taking square roots." (Smithsonian Institution)

May 1, 1971 Project Gutenburg

The project began in 1971 when Micheal Hart created the first 'E-book'. In early 1973. Hart, who would become known as the father of eBooks, was given an operator's account on the University of Illinois mainframe, where he was a student. Having been given highly valuable computer time when few others could, he decided to digitize and electronically preserve public domain books and texts, making them available for free. Today, of course e-books are widely used by schools and universities.

March 1, 1972 The invention of E-mail

Ray Tomlinson came up with the idea of using the "@" symbol within the ARPANET to deliver electronic mail to individual users. As a result of this event, network email as we know it today was invented, and Tomlinson is credited as its inventor. Researchers at places like MIT, Purdue, Stanford, and USC were able to exchange messages using his system. Email is extremely important means of communication in the field of Education today.

1973 – Creation of the Ethernet Cable

The purpose of an ethernet cable while created at this time, was much different than what we think of today. However, with the creation of the ethernet cable, we are now able to reach others through the internet. While this cable has begun to lose some of the same power that it had before Wi-Fi, it allowed the Internet to be more accessible, which led to the ultimate test of instructional technology, when remote teaching became the norm.

1973 - TCIP

The concept of the transmission control protocol (TCP) was developed at DARPA by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf, and they presented their ideas at an INWG meeting at the University of Sussex in England in 1974 [KaC:74]. TCP allowed cross-network connections and it began to replace the original NCP protocol that was used in ARPANET. TCP is a set of network standards that specify the details of how computers communicate as well as the standards for interconnecting networks and computers. It was designed to be flexible and provides a transmission standard that deals with physical differences in host computers, routers, and networks. It is designed to transfer data over networks which support different packet sizes, and which may sometimes lose packets. It allows the inter-networking of very different networks, which then act as one network. The new protocol standards were the transport control protocol (TCP) and the Internet protocol (IP). TCP details how information is broken into packets and reassembled on delivery, whereas IP is focused on sending the packet across the network. These standards allow users to send electronic mail or to transfer files electronically without needing to concern themselves with the physical differences in the networks. (O'Regan, 2021)

In 1973 - Educational software programs are developed and distributed

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (MECC) formed a coordinating body to distribute information and courseware for CAI. MECC is the producer of several educational software packages, such as The Oregon Trail. When The Oregon Trail came out in 1971, it was unlike any game that had come before. An educational computer game that kids actually wanted to play, it filled with action-packed hunting scenes, RPG-like strategy and story, and the constant threat of death. It also made "dying of dysentery" an in-joke for children of the 70s, 80s, and 90s (such was the game's lifespan). But the most amazing thing about The Oregon Trail is perhaps how it was made. Coded by three college students in the days before personal computers, its creators built the game over the limited hours they could teletype into a central mainframe. And with little before it spell out how these games should look or play, its creators had to come up with novel solutions to just about every problem they encountered. (Porges, 2017) Kevin Driscoll, assistant professor at the University of Virginia, states it by saying, "While the educational benefits of classroom computers were often overstated, they did create opportunities for teachers and students to get hands-on access to technology that would have otherwise been out of reach.”

1977 - Apple II debuts

The Apple II is the first computer of it’s kind to use color graphics. In 1977, the Apple II was hailed as an ordinary computer designed to do extraordinary things. In contrast with the Apple I, which required the consumer to supply its own essential components, the Apple II was a full-featured product. Apple was the leading provider of personal computers in the first decade of the 20th century because of its user-friendly design and graphical display. This paved the way for use of graphics and color in with computers in the field of education today.

1981 - First personal computer is invented

IBM's own Personal Computer (IBM 5150) was introduced in August 1981, only a year after corporate executives gave the go-ahead to Bill Lowe, the lab director in the company's Boca Raton, Fla., facilities. He set up a task force that developed the proposal for the first IBM PC. Early studies had concluded that there were not enough applications to justify acceptance on a broad basis and the task force was fighting the idea that things couldn't be done quickly in IBM. One analyst was quoted as saying that "IBM bringing out a personal computer would be like teaching an elephant to tap dance." During a meeting with top executives in New York, Lowe claimed his group could develop a small, new computer within a year. The response: "You're on. Come back in two weeks with a proposal." (IBM)

1982 - The term "cyberspace" is used for the first time

William Gibson, author of "Neuromancer," is the first to use the term "cyberspace. In 1982, writer William Gibson, thirty-four at the time, used a strange new word in his short story “Burning Chrome” to describe — presage, really — the emerging ecosystem sprouted by computer networks. But it wasn’t until Gibson used it again in his 1984 novel Neuromancer (public library) that the new term — “cyberspace” — caught on like cultural wildfire. (Popova)

1985 CD-ROM was introduced

CD-ROM technology was invented by James Russell, who worked for the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory at the U.S. Department of Energy. His initial idea was to use photosensitive film to preserve digital information in order to play it back later. Russell wanted a device that would be able to replace vinyl records while functioning without actual physical contact between the components. CD-ROMs eventually led to other inventions like flash drives and more convenient self storage devices.

1985 - Microsoft Windows is Created

Windows has long stood at the forefront of true user interface. Created in 1985, Windows promised a "simple graphical interface, device-independent graphics, and multitasking support" (Indiana University). This was the foundation for what we now know today, and it allows consumers a relatively cost-effective and common way to share ideas.

1991, the World Wide Web launched. This opened the gates for a lot of technological advancements, specifically in communication and education. This is going to pave the way for a lot of modern technology used in things like research in the classroom.

1994 - Broderbund releases Myst, the first successful interactive 3-D computer game. This significant development helped support the development of other 3-D platforms, tools, and games that would later be used in training to provide more life-like learning opportunities.

1994, the International WWW Conference Committee was formed to ensure a positive and neutral debate over the modernization and technological advancements in education. This organization is still active today.

DVDs were created in 1996.

This not only allowed movies and videos to be stored and play on a smaller physical format, but was eventually used in education. Teachers and students could use DVDs in classrooms or at home to enrich the lessons. Movie clips, tutorials and other educational media could be shared.

"Great Moments in Multimedia History." Atomic Rom Productions, 2004. Retrieved May 23 from http://writing.atomicmartinis.com/moments.htm (Links to an external site.)

Social Media came on the scene in 1997.

Social media was first considered as merely entertainment, but now schools, colleges, and business use social media to communicate with students and stakeholders. Social media allow students the opportunity to interact with their classmates, teachers, and others around the world.

"Timeline of Technology in the Classroom." University of San Francisco. Gradschools, 2020. Retrieved May 23 from https://www.gradschools.com/degree-guide/technology-in-the-classroom-timeline-curriculum-planning (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

The first laptop with Wifi was released in 1999.

The ability to use a computer without being hard wired to anything has changed the face of education. Students and teachers can now work from anyplace near a wifi tower. Living in the time of Covid, I can only imagine what things would look like without this event.

"Timeline of Technology in the Classroom." University of San Francisco. Gradschools, 2020. Retrieved May 23 from https://www.gradschools.com/degree-guide/technology-in-the-classroom-timeline-curriculum-planningLinks to an external site.

1999 - Really Simple Syndication (RSS) was created, which opened doors for the rapid spread of news through many different outlets. This is really interesting to me because especially in teaching social studies, it is important to understand the changes and events happening in the world as we teach the content.

2001—The revolution will be downloaded: Apple introduces iTunes (January) and the iPod (October).

"Bill Kincaid and Jeff Robbin, two former Apple employees, developed an MP3 player called SoundJam MP in the late 1990s. In 2000, Apple re-hired them and their partner, Dave Heller, to work on a similar player that would come standard with Apple computers. The first version of iTunes debuted early the next year, on the cusp of a new era in digital entertainment.,

2003 - Skype was founded and used to facilitate virtual collaboration, collect research data, and conduct inexpensive virtual field trips

2010 - Development of the SAMR model by Phi Beta Kappa teaching awardee and education researcher Ruben Puentedura. The SAMR model helps in guiding educators about the role of the technology when it is being integrated to enhance learning. As more and more technology is invented and used in the classroom, the technology integration model is a necessary guide to avoid using technology simply as a substitution (initial level) but gradually to the higher-order or last level of redefinition, enhancing collaboration and problem-solving.