THE DESCENT OF MAN, AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX (1871)

CHARLES DARWIN

Explanatory Critical Paper

Philosophy Department

Joshua Caesar O. Elegado, II-BA Philosophy

As man begins to wonder, the existence of man is examined through questions of life about how man was created at the very first place to begin with. The theory of creation was basically but a God created beings in an instant, some call it as the natural theology. Natural Theology was one of the system to where it explains the life here on our earth in four arguments, the first argument was the Divine creation, by where, there was this entity that creates the universe and also creating beings that came from nothing, second is the fixity of species, that some species never really change from time to time[1]”Fixity of species is a term which means all species remained unchanged throughout the history of the earth. This belief is generally not accepted by the majority in present times because of the vast amount of evidence supporting evolution.” On the third argument, the seven days of creation, by which is tackles about how our earth was created by God in just a short period of time and there was. The fourth is about the perfect design, we can relate this in the Aquinas argument of the existence of God on where the beings in this world was perfectly designed by the creator itself, and does not require adaptable on the very first place for everything was perfect in accordance to the design. It tells us that, those arguments were just an answer to “how” on a shallow sense, Charles Darwin wanted to go deeper in understanding on the life of man regarding its origin. Darwin has sought evidences that brought knowledge to man in his present condition provided with arguments that will capsulize one's being's understanding about oneself to the extent of society in a larger sense.

Where did man came from? In theological sense, it was an inquiry where a divine being has created humans and non-human animals in such perfect design that has existed a long time ago and has yet to be the same condition as of today and shall continue for the future generations that still the same design for what is created at the very first place. On the other hand, there still a questions that are still unanswered, such as, is there are more feasible aspects to where man and any other beings come to place in our earth? Such question is not found in the theological aspect, but in a more deliberative scientific explanation demand. We see that, in every class of beings, has also different sub-classes whether in terms of size, shape, color, and what not. Take mockingbird for an example, a mockingbird or a group of mocking birds in Australia has a longer beaks compared to Asia, although, they are both the same specie but different external or physical characteristics in the given manner. This was on the respect of the lower beings in the degree or the hierarchy of beings. On the higher level, the are humans, to where in different places or of countries, there different kinds of humans, or most of the humans that were living in such places were different compared to any other countries. It mostly sounds like in a certain area or environment, there was a corresponding specie that is living and a compatible with the environment so that they stay there and then at the very end of the day. [2]

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex is a book by English naturalist Charles Darwin, first published in 1871, which applies evolutionary theory to human evolution, and details his theory of sexual selection, a form of biological adaptation distinct from, yet interconnected with, natural selection. The book discusses many related issues, including evolutionary psychology, evolutionary ethics, differences between human races, differences between sexes, the dominant role of women in mate choice, and the relevance of the evolutionary theory to society. This refers to such explanation to where we are to understand the root of our existence, by which to have deeper knowledge of our own kind and of all being as its originations. [3]The sole object of this work is to consider, firstly, whether man, like every other species, is descended from some pre-existing form; secondly, the manner of his development: and thirdly, the value of differences between the so-called races of man.

Darwin clearly stated about his past book on the Origin of Species, [4]“During many years, it has seemed to me highly probable that sexual selection has played an important role in differentiating the races of man; but in my 'Origin of Species', I contended myself by merely alluding to this belief. When came to apply this view to man, founded that, it is indispensable to treat the whole project in detail. Consequently, this project aims the importance of sexual selection, and is to extend to an inordinate length, compared to the first part.”

Part I: The Descent of Man, the evidence of the descent of man from some lower form. Before this paper was established, our origin was doubted whether we are as we are, or we came from a pre-existing form whether from a higher being or a lower being. In the higher being, maybe we are a descendant of an angel or any divine being that had collapsed and became man, or from a lower form who which evolved and became man. Charles Darwin found an evidence to prove that men was descended from some being that existed before man. Darwin established a premise which is the similarities of physical bodily structure to some specie. [5]Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man, homologous structures in man and the lower animals. Miscellaneous points of correspondence, its developments. Rudimentary structures, muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs. The bearing of this three great classes of facts on the origin of man. On the first level, the bodily structures of man, that man seems constructed on the same general type or model with other mammals. All bones or skeletal can be compared with corresponding bones in a monkey, bat, or seal. As to that, the brain is the most important of all organs. Biologically speaking, there are similarities between a human and an animals. One evidence is that, the communication of diseases such as the Covid-19, a zoonosis kind of disease, hydrophobia, variola, and what not, and this fact proves the close similarity of their tissues and of blood. A reason why animal experimentation was established because the DNA of a man is similar to chimpanzees about ninety-nine percent. On the other hand, the psychological perspective, we see that, in terms of mental capabilities and capacities, we see that there is indeed a level of such. As we can obviously see, humans are the highest level of form compared to animals. Humans are capable to talk, have creativity, to have imagination, use mobile phones, read, write, understand, have emotions, love, be rational and reasonable. When we are talking about emotions, animals also possess the such, just like a jealous dog over the other dog who gets all the treats from the one who fed them. That apes for example, also feels excitement, and is ready to play with their own kind. The most important of all, that actually champion between the man over the non-human animals, is that, the capability to reason, man can determine situations with reason and is able to conquer that specific problem whether it is logical or moral. To cut the detailed story, as we can see, there are actually similarities, and we are endless of degree of discipline, but the point here however, is to see the differences and similarities, and with that, we are to set a degree or a level of capabilities betwixt the higher and the lower form. With this part, we are able to see some evidences that are relevant to support the claim of Darwin that from lower form descended human. To see the development of man from some lower forms, [6] “The variability or diversity of the mental faculties in men of the same race, not to mention the greater differences between the men of distinct races, is so notorious that not a word need here be said. So it is with the lower animals. All who have had charge of menageries admit this fact, and we see it plainly in our dogs and other domestic animals. Each monkey of those which he kept tame in Africa had its own peculiar disposition and temper: he mentions one baboon remarkable for its high intelligence; and the keepers in the Zoological Gardens pointed out to me a monkey, belonging to the New World division, equally remarkable for intelligence. The diversity in the various mental characters of the monkeys of the same species which he kept in Paraguay; and this diversity, as he adds, is partly innate, and partly the result of the manner in which they have been treated or educated.” With this, we can actually see that there are animals who where they adapt the best to a certain environment and pass their traits to their offspring. As a result, [7]”with respect to the causes of variability, we are in all cases very ignorant; but we can see that in man as in the lower animals, they stand in some relation to the conditions to which each species has been exposed, during several generations.” To proceed to the race of man an analogous to specie, by which dogs are with so many breeds and are not to admit that are to be ranked, that humans have also different characterization in terms of appearance and physicality. They are not to be ranked, for all of these differentiations rooted from a single being that spread and multiplied with different outcomes and resulted into different appearances all at one. Those multiple and different resemblance from their parents are all part of breeding per se, some are bred to have improved offspring and shall pass it in generations, and so resulting into more improved performance in adapting to nature. Hence, the matter by which the appearance of a certain specie may differ depending on the environment, in a particular place, they may have common appearances compared to other places with different environment to be placed with. The tendency in fact, may have a specie that is the same, but different appearances depending on the places due because of the environment that revolves or they live with. In natural condition, chimpanzees, finches, beetles and what not, all of them have the same appearance and at the same time not depending on the environment. In non-natural, where human intervention has took place, they have dogs for example be bred, and resulting to a desired outcome, that of, a mixed bred of a German shepherd and a Filipino askal in a given phase. To give emphasis to the natural exhibit, that apes, chimpanzees, gorilla, orangs and what not, all of them are different, but are considered as a ape primate, all of them are theoretically descended from one primate. The point is that, the descent of these beings are clear to evaluate due because of their physicality. Same theory is applied to the races of man, that different race descended from one race and multiplied on different places in this earth, resulting in different appearances, yet considered human, and there is no ranking between their gradation because in terms of mental faculties, they are all capable humans to begin with. Darwin has also stated about the extinction of human race, where in a certain race became outnumbered because of the disintegrating of tradition may lead to a racial extinction, take native tribes for example. The formation of races of man however is somewhat the contrary to the statement of the extinction due because of outnumbering, because in the formation, there should be a wide agreement, and collaboration and shall result in diffusion of races, and is flourishing. And with that, the generation are improved to begin with. Thus, this proposition may be understood later on the sexual selection. The color of the skin is the most obvious traits of races of man. The explanation to that, is basically about the climate condition of a certain place, when it is hot, skin becomes black, and white, when cold. Darwin stated “Color of the skin and hair are sometimes correlated in a surprising manner with the complete immunity from the action of certain vegetable poison and from the attacks of certain parasites, and negroes have acquired their dark tints by darker individuals escaping during a long series of generations from the deadly influence of the miasmas of their native countries”. Negroes are immune to yellow fever compared to whites. However, the main point here would be, that of man as an intellectual and of as higher being compared to non-human animals, we see some differentiations and similarities, and such would lead us to nearing discovery of man's origination. The question now would be is the “how”.

Now, what would be the process by which the descent of man took place and of the other species. [8]Charles Darwin proposed that “all living species were derived from common ancestors. The primary mechanism he proposed to explain this fact was natural selection: that is, that organisms better adapted to their environment would benefit from higher rates of survival than those less well equipped to do so. However he noted that there were many examples of elaborate, and apparently non-adaptive, sexual traits that would clearly not aid in the survival of their bearers. He suggested that such traits might evolve if they are sexually selected, that is if they increase the individual's reproductive success, even at the expense of their survival.

Darwin noted that sexual selection depends on the struggle between males to access females. He recognized two mechanisms of sexual selection: intrasexual selection, or competition between members of the same sex (usually males) for access to mates, and intersexual selection, where members of one sex (usually females) choose members of the opposite sex. The idea of cumbersome traits evolving to aid males in competition during aggressive encounters was readily accepted by scientists shortly after Darwin's publication. However, the idea of female mate choice was received with ridicule, and was not seriously reconsidered until nearly 80 years later. In the 40 years since, there has been much progress in our understanding of how sexual selection operates. Sex roles are defined by differences in gametes: females produce relatively few, highly nutritious gametes, whereas males produce comparatively abundant, smaller, motile gametes. Because only a single gamete of each type is required to produce an offspring, there will be an excess of male gametes that will not fertilize any eggs. Female reproduction is primarily limited by their access to resources to nourish and produce these large gametes, whereas male reproduction is mainly limited by access to females. Therefore males typically compete among themselves for access to females, whereas females tend to be choosy and mate only with preferred males. In sexually reproducing species, every offspring has one father and one mother, so the average reproductive success is equal for both males and females. A successful male can potentially sire many offspring. If a male gains a disproportionate share of reproduction, he will take away reproductive opportunities from other males, leading to a high reproductive variance among males. A successful female, on the other hand, will not take away reproductive opportunities from other females, leading to a smaller variance in reproductive success. The higher the reproductive variance, the stronger the effects of sexual selection. Strong sexual selection typically results in sexually dimorphic traits that are exaggerated, or more elaborate, in the sex with highest reproductive variance.” The argument here is that, male competes for a mate, and female's choice of mate. The former explains that, man has a competition against any male for the goal of mating, and that who won has the chance to be picked by the female he is competing for at the very first place. The former explains that, women preference of mate, whether the male has beautiful genes that kindly attracts them for the sake of reproducing a beautiful offspring. Secondly, the female also considers who has the better capacity to defend or to have their security be observed, for their kind to be strong, and is able to fight predators away. And with that, the result may be in kind of strengthening their kind on the next generations. The issue with the one who has good genes is that, they are more likely prone to become prey and attract predators at the very end of the day. However, if their offspring are on the larger amount of population, this will have an equalizer effect between the food chain of life, where population would be equal in terms of numbers even if there are predators that would prey on them, still, the numbers will remain equal because of the production.

To affirm, the first idea is that, the man descended from a lower form. Wherein, man came from an pre-existing form due because of similarities in physical structures of men. To critique this idea, to premise two levels; first, to question the pre-existing form; secondly, the idea of natural theology. To begin with, the pre-existing form is nothing but questionable and is problematic in some levels. First, the randomness of the first parents is very much problematic, since it conveys that from a random level, it has given a potentiality to give life at the very first place. On the second level, the first generation is not mentioned, whether it is the lowest form of being, say rocks or dirt, and there may not be an evolutionary process in there to begin with. Third is the potency and act is not clear to begin with. The pre-existing form as of said by Darwin was about the primates where man descended from, however, we should be clear about the premise of this, where did the pre-existing being came from? Did it came from a much more lower being? Until where will be find the first generation of this? But the point here however, is that, the first form existed was not found, and is unable to establish a theory whether the lower form was descended from something or some being from a form. In this theory of the descent, if man was descended in a higher form, say angels in accordance to the hierarchy of being, it may be possible in a sense, when such higher being regresses and resulted in human form that which we can out graded by the lower forms. Because, even if he had founded the process to articulate this theory, the grounding of the such is necessary to accomplish firm arguments and champion at the very end of the day.

In natural theology, to where a divine intervention was the premise to where everything sprouted from to begin with. In creation, we can prove that there is actually the first generation that sparked everything in this earth. To prove the first generator was the first step to actually discover what goes beyond. To extrapolate, the creation would be as is in accordance to the natural theology, wherein there is the fixity of species. Fixity of species is the stable condition or design that carries their entire physicality for the next generation to come and ever will be. Take turtle for example, no matter how stupid or ugly they may look in our perspective, they are created by the divine creator and that creation is perfect and has purpose in their existence to begin with until the future generations may come. The point here is that, the design of the creation will stay as is it, making the evolutionary process becomes nullified due because of the fixity of species as created in perfect design to begin with. To explain the first generation which was not undermined by Darwin, that is to actually have the first generation as creation to begin with. Because in the very first place, the pre-existing form as of the message of Darwin, it must have come to an origination that actually comes to our present state in the very first place. This states that, the evolution theory by Darwin may have denied the possibility that the pre-existing form has originated. Thus, subject resort on the things that have no ground to begin with, and proceeded with the unknown randomness and settled to begin with. With the random groundings in the context, it is safe to say that, all of the settlement in the grounds may have the same fate as of the context that is given in the very first place, that is randomness. There is the chance of being uncertain if continues bearing the unknown groundings of such.

To conclude, at the very first place, before biological knowledge was flourished, there was a system of belief, and is now being the counter argument of evolution, that is the divine creation of all things, by which it asserts the fixity, designed, and of divine intervention is called out in accordance to prevail what really comes first. On the following system, there is an evidential format in the name of science which was founded by Charles Darwin, in which he claims that, everything or every being here in this earth was actually a result of an evolutionary process that took place in a gradual period of time to being with. From the premise that, human was a product of some pre-existing form that evolved until we became. The process to talk about is actually tackling about the sexual selection, by which, primarily, the males and females has a role when it comes to talk about the “how” in the process of evolution. The goal of the sexual process, is basically, the female comes to have a preferred choice whom she may mate with, whether, first, it has good genes, and second, it has good capacity to be able to adapt to the environment efficiently. And therefore, to pass their traits to the future generations and is able to have more and more good genes and efficient adaptability from time to time, until this present era. Another is that, in every environment, a specie may differ in terms of physicality because of, say climates. And therefore, the specie and race of beings are observed. The critique of this is that, the sort of pre-existing form should have and must have their own origination, because we can not magically settle things out of randomness. And therefore, the groundings of the study of evolution is basically problematic due because of lacking of trace back. Secondly, the critique demands an answer regarding the first generation, for we to be able to establish the process with firm ground to begin with. One answer that we see is that, there must have been a creator that is divine to be able to have created the first generation.

REFERENCES:

“Fixity of Species.” Scribd. Scribd. Accessed March 6, 2020. https://www.scribd.com/document/215193121/Fixity-of-Species.

GradeSaver. “Introduction: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex.” GradeSaver. Accessed March 7, 2020. https://www.gradesaver.com/the-descent-of-man-and-selection-in-relation-to-sex/introduction.

“The variability or diversity of the mental faculties” Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 58, 87. Rengger, 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 57.

“The causes of variability” Mitford's 'History of Greece,' vol. i. p. 282

The variability or diversity of the mental faculties” Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 58, 87. Rengger, 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 57.

“The causes of variability” Mitford's 'History of Greece,' vol. i. p. 282

Darwin, Charles. “Sexual Selection.” Nature News. Nature Publishing Group. Accessed March 8, 2020. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sexual-selection-13255240/.

Sloan, Phillip. “Darwin: From Origin of Species to Descent of Man.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University, June 17, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/origin-descent/#HumaEvolDescMan.

[1] “Fixity of Species.” Scribd. Scribd. Accessed March 6, 2020. https://www.scribd.com/document/215193121/Fixity-of-Species.

[2] GradeSaver. “Introduction: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex.” GradeSaver. Accessed March 7, 2020. https://www.gradesaver.com/the-descent-of-man-and-selection-in-relation-to-sex/introduction.

[3] “The sole object” Darwin, Charles. The descent of man: and selection in relation to sex. John Murray, Albemarle Street., 1888.

[4] Darwin, Charles. The descent of man: and selection in relation to sex. John Murray, Albemarle Street., 1888.

[5] “The nature of evidence” Darwin, Charles. The descent of man: and selection in relation to sex. John Murray, Albemarle Street., 1888.

[6] “The variability or diversity of the mental faculties” Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 58, 87. Rengger, 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 57.

[7] “The causes of variability” Mitford's 'History of Greece,' vol. i. p. 282

[8] Darwin, Charles. “Sexual Selection.” Nature News. Nature Publishing Group. Accessed March 8, 2020. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sexual-selection-13255240/.

[9] Sloan, Phillip. “Darwin: From Origin of Species to Descent of Man.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University, June 17, 2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/origin-descent/#HumaEvolDescMan.