Exam Review Definitions

This is just a quick and easy form of review with certain definitions that you should become familiar with, or that you will come across often

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• Beta glucose

  • Cellulose is made from beta glucose

  • Cyclic

  • 6 carbon sugar

  • Polymerizes to form cellulose

• Alpha glucose

• The difference between beta and alpha is in the c1 molecule's OH

• In alpha OH is downward

  • So is c2

  • Think of alpha - dog- downward dog- both OH are downwards

• In beta - OH is up

  • C2 is still downward

  • Think of beta - b- both - both directions between c1 and c2

• Diploid

  • Sexually reproducing organisms receive both genetic material from both parents

  • They have two sets of chromosomes

  • The organisms now have to create sex cells (gametes) with half the number of this diploid amount

  • When two haploid gametes fuse, the resulting diploid cell is called a zygote and they can now grow and develop into a new organism

  • The nuclei that have pairs of homologous chromosomes are diploid

    • These nuclei have 2 gene copies for each trait

  • 2n

  • All somatic cells (body cells) are diploid

    • New diploid body cells are created via mitosis

  • Diploid cells are present in most animals and many plants

  • Any cell or organism with paired chromosomes, one from each parent

  • Diploids have 23 pairs of chromosomes = 46 chromosomes

• Haploid

  • Human sex cells contain a single set of chromosomes

  • 23

  • Organisms that reproduce asexually are haploid

  • They don’t have another parent to get another set of chromosomes from

  • n

  • Single gene copy for each trait

  • All gametes are haploid

  • Haploid cells are present in bacteria due to their asexual nature

  • Also present in fungi except when reproducing

• Amylase

  • Digestion of sugar/ starches

  • Enzyme

  • Catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch

    • Into sugars

  • Present in the saliva of human

  • Begins the chemical process of digestion

  • Present in pancreatic juice

• Codominance

  • Relationship between two alleles

  • Neither ends up being recessive

  • Both phenotypes are expressed at the same time

  • Both alleles are expressed equally

  • Ex is skin color

  • This happens often when a gene has more than two alleles

  • Blood grouping

    • Three alleles- Ia, Ib and I

    • Ia and Ib are codominant

    • Both are dominant to I

    • This results in 4 different phenotypes

    • A person's blood group depends on the combination of alleles they get

    • Each person has only two of the three alleles

    • They are inherited just like alternative alleles of a pair

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• Golgi apparatus

  • An organelle present in eukaryotic cells

  • Responsible for the packaging and processing of proteins and lipids

  • Transport, modify, package

  • Storing, sorting and modification and export of secretory products

  • Assembly of vesicles

  • Folded membranes as well

  • Located near the cell membrane

    • Needs to produce vesicles

    • Lower travel distance for exocytosis

• Lysosome

  • Membrane bound

  • Organelle

  • Contain digestive enzymes

  • Break down excess or worn out cell parts

  • Also can be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria]

  • Spherical organelles

  • Little internal structure

  • Made by the golgi apparatus

  • Contain hydrolytic enzymes- to break down components of cells

  • Important in cell death

  • Also in breaking down old organelles

  • Digesting bacteria that have been engulfed by phagocytosis

  • Are not present in plant cells

• Autosome

  • Chromosomes in an organism that do not determine sex

  • Sex chromosomes are allosomes

  • 22 pairs of autosomes

  • 1 pair of allosomes

• Polysome

  • A group of two or more ribosomes translating a mRNA sequence simultaneously

  • Makes multiple copies of the same polypeptide

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  • Appear as beads on a string

  • Each bead represents a ribosome

  • In prokaryotes, the polysomes may form while mRNA is still being transcribed from the DNA template

  • Ribosomes located at the 3' end (tail) of the Polysome will have longer polypeptide chains than those at the 5' end

    • This is because it has "read" more of the mRNA

    • Starts at 5'

• mRNA transport

  • A group of two or more ribosomes

  • In eukaryotes, the ribosomes are separated from the genetic material (DNA and RNA) by the nucleus

  • After transcription, the mRNA must be transported from the nucleus through the nuclear pores

    • This needs to happen before translation by the ribosomes

  • This transport requires the RNA to be modified

  • Add a 5" methyl cap for protection

  • As well as a poly- a tail on the 3 prime end

  • Polyadenylation

  • Prokaryotes do not have compartmentalized structures like a nucleus

    • Transcription and translation do not have to be separated

    • Here is no reason for this transport

      • Does this mean no methyl cap and poly a tail in prokaryotes?

    • In prokaryotes, ribosomes can begin translation while it is still being transcribed

      • This is possible because translation and transcription both occur in 5 to 3 direction

• Absorption spectrum

  • Photosynthensis

• Coronary thrombosis

  • Formation of clot within the blood vessels that supply and sustain the heart tissue

    • The coronary arteries

  • The occlusion of a coronary artery by a blood clot may lead to a heart attack later

    • Acute myocardial infarction

  • Blood clots form in coronary arteries when the vessels are damaged due to the deposition of cholesterol over time

  • Atheromas

    • Fatty deposits

    • Develop in the arteries

    • Significantly decrease the diameter of the lumen

      • this process is called stenosis

    • The restricted blood flow increases pressure

      • Damage to the arterial wall due to pressure

      • This damaged region is repaired with fibrous tissue

        • This significantly reduces the elasticity of the vessel wall

        • As the smooth lining of the vessel degrades over time, lesions form

          • These lesions are called atherosclerotic plaques

          • If a plaque ruptures, then the blood clotting is triggered

          • This forma a thrombus that restricts blood flow

          • If the thrombus becomes dislodged it becomes an embolus which can cause blockage in a different / smaller arteriole

• Fibrin

  • Used in blood clotting

  • Protein

  • Fibrin strands form a mesh of fibers around the platelet plug

  • Forms a temporary clot

  • Traps blood cells

  • When the damage region is repaired, an enzyme is activated to dissolve the clot

    • This enzyme is plasmin

• Autosomes

  • Chromosomes that do not determine sex

  • Have them everywhere

  • Somatic cells

  • 1-22

  • Are autosomes the chromosomes in all your body cells?

• Smooth ER

• Cellulose

  • Plant cells

  • Sugars

  • Polysaccharide

  • Carbohydrate polymer

    • Carbohydrates are one of the 4 main macromolecules - protein, lipids, and nucleic acids

  • There are three key polymers that can be made from glucose molecules

  • Linear molecule

  • Composed of beta glucose

  • Bound in a 1-4 arrangement

    • What does this mean

    • Carbon 1 on one molecule is linked to crbon 4 on another

  • Indigestible for most animals

    • This is because it is composed of beta glucose

    • We lack the enzyme to break it down

  • Ruminants like c can digest cellulose because they have specialized bacteria in their stomach to help with the digestion

  • Caecotrophs can also re-ingest specialized feces that contain digested cellulose

    • Ex rabbits

    • Broken down in the caecum

      • Caecum - pouch considered to be the beginning of the large intestine

      • Located on the right side of the body

      • Joined to the appendix

• Starch

  • Energy storage polysaccharide

  • Found in plants

  • Composed of alpha glucose subunits

  • Exists in two forms

    • Amylose

      • Linear helical molecule

    • Amylopectin

      • Harder to digest

      • Less soluble

      • Takes up less space, therefore it is the preferred form of storage in plants

• Glycogen

  • Energy storage polysaccharide

  • Formed in the liver of animals

  • Composed of alpha glucose subunits

    • Branching

      • These molecules are linked together through both 1-4 and 1-6 linkages

      • More highly branched than amylopectin

      • There is branching for every 10 subunits

• Rough ER

  • Embedded with Ribosomes

  • Membrane network

  • Seen in both animal and plant cells

  • Made from flattened membrane sacs

  • Transports proteins between organelles

• Saprotroph

• Carbohydrate

  • Provides energy for animals

    • Primarily through glucose

    • C:H:O- 1:2:1

    • (CH2O)n --- n is the no of carbon atoms

    • Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

• Phylogeny

• Luteinizing hormone

• Testosterone

• Meiosis

• Homeostasis

• Monosaccharides

  • Most common is glucose

  • No of carbons ranges from 3 to 7

  • Most names end in ose

    • Ex glucose, ribose, triose

    • Hexoses have 6 carbons, trioses have three, pentoses have 5 carbon atoms

• Bivalents

  • Also called tetrad

  • In prophase 1 , homologous chromosomes undergo a process called synapsis

    • They pair up to form a bivalent

  • Homologous chromosomes are held together at points called chiasmata/chiasma(singular)

    • The crossing over of genetic matter occurs at these chiasmata

    • New combinations are formed as a result of this exchange of genetic material

      • New gene combinations on chromosomes

    • Once new chiasmata are formed, the homologous chromosomes condense as bivalents and then are separated during meiosis

    • If crossing over occurs, then all 4 haploid daughter cells are genetically distinct

• Stem cell

  • After cell differentiation, it loses its ability to become a different type of cell

  • Stem cells are the cells that have not yet specialized

  • They have two key qualities

    • Self renewal

      • They can continuously divide and replicate

    • Potency

      • They have the ability to differentiate into multiple cell types, not always all cell types

    • Types of stem cells

      • These 4 different types are present at different stages of human development

      • Totipotent- these can form any type of cell

        • They can also form extra embryonic tissue like that of the placenta

        • These stem cells are present in zygotes

      • Pluripotent

        • Can form any type of cell

        • Ex embryonic stem cells

      • Multipotent

        • Can differentiate into a number of closely related cell types

        • hematopoietic adult stem cells

• Unipotent

  • Cannot differentiate into multiple cell types, but they are still capable of cell renewal

  • Muscle stem cells

  • Progenitor cells

• Uses

  • Necessary for embryonic development

  • Undifferentiated cell type from which all the body cells of the future human can be derived

  • Note: cell types that are not capable at all of cell renewal re generally not considered to be stem cells

    • Since non stem cells cannot be regenerated or naturally replaced, stem cells are often used as a therapeutic option when body

• Ribosome

  • Makes proteins

  • Free ribosomes just present in the cytoplasm

  • They could be attached to the rER

  • Made of RNA and proteins

  • Do not have a membrane around them

  • Minute particles

  • Site of protein synthesis

• Eukaryotic cells

  • Have organelles

• Prokaryotic cells

  • Single unicellular organism

  • 4 common components

    • Plasma membrane

      • Outer covering that separates he cell's interior from the environment

    • Cytoplasm

      • Jelly like region

      • Other cellular components are found within it

    • DNA

    • Ribosomes

  • These cells do not have nuclei

  • Do not have any membrane bound organelles

  • The dna is found in the central area of the cell

    • This is a loose rea that appears darker, called the nucleoid

• Pedigree chart

• Mitochondria

• Nucleus

• Ovaries

• Pancreas

• Liver

• Sinoatrial node

• Competitive inhibition

• Purkinje fibers

• Chloroplast

• Photosynthensis

• Cellular respiration

• Alleles

• Dendrite

• Trans and cis fats

• Cisternae

• Cell wall

• Membrane proteins

• Glycoprotein

• Nerve

• Synapse

• Neuron

• B cells

• Matrix

• Characteristics of a living thing

• Active diffusion

• Transcription

• Translation

• Sex linked characteristics

• Passive diffusion

• Davson danielli

• Recombinants

  1. The conditions that don’t exist in the parents

  2. Happens less in linked genes

  3. Can only be in the second generation

• Water and Ch4

• Enzyme substrate complex

• Hemophilia

• Karyotyping

• Genetically modified organisms

• Cloning

• Food webs

• Energy loss

• Natural selection

• Coniferophyta

• Phyla

• Zygote

• Angiospermophyta

• Bryophyta

• Platyhelminthes

• PCR

• Disruptive selection

• Natural selection

• Competitive selection

• Gel electrophoresis

• Phosphorylation

• Digestion

• alimentary canal

• Phylum Chordata

• Bile duct

• Villi

• Tissue

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

• Pentadactyl limb

• Helper t cells

• Ovulation

• Spermatogenesis

• Oogenesis

• Follicle

• Cyclin

• HIV

• Antigen

• Ventilation

• Respiration

• Alveoli

• Hormones

• Central nervous system

• Endocrine system

• Dendrites

• Insulin

• Glyosidic bond

• Alleles

• Amylose

• Amylopectin

• Cytoskeleton

• Peroxisome

• Cisternae

• Lipids

• Phospholipid bilayer

• synapse

• Pancreatic juice

• Antagonistic muscle action

• Centrosome

• Extracellular matrix

• Caecotrophs

• Vacuole

• Phagocytosis

• Transcription

• Translation

• Codon

• Anticodon

• Sense strand

• Antisense strand

• Semiconservative

• Fibrinogen

• Structural proteins

• Fibrous proteins

• Neuromuscular junction

• Atherosclerosis

• Gas exchange

• Sarcoplasmic reticulum

• Nerve potential

• sodium potassium pumps

• Link reaction

• Fermentation

• Macrophages

• Monoclonal antibodies

• Progesterone

• Testosterone

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