Exam Review Definitions
This is just a quick and easy form of review with certain definitions that you should become familiar with, or that you will come across often
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Beta glucose
Cellulose is made from beta glucose
Cyclic
6 carbon sugar
Polymerizes to form cellulose
Alpha glucose
The difference between beta and alpha is in the c1 molecule's OH
In alpha OH is downward
So is c2
Think of alpha - dog- downward dog- both OH are downwards
In beta - OH is up
C2 is still downward
Think of beta - b- both - both directions between c1 and c2
Diploid
Sexually reproducing organisms receive both genetic material from both parents
They have two sets of chromosomes
The organisms now have to create sex cells (gametes) with half the number of this diploid amount
When two haploid gametes fuse, the resulting diploid cell is called a zygote and they can now grow and develop into a new organism
The nuclei that have pairs of homologous chromosomes are diploid
These nuclei have 2 gene copies for each trait
2n
All somatic cells (body cells) are diploid
New diploid body cells are created via mitosis
Diploid cells are present in most animals and many plants
Any cell or organism with paired chromosomes, one from each parent
Diploids have 23 pairs of chromosomes = 46 chromosomes
Haploid
Human sex cells contain a single set of chromosomes
23
Organisms that reproduce asexually are haploid
They don’t have another parent to get another set of chromosomes from
n
Single gene copy for each trait
All gametes are haploid
Haploid cells are present in bacteria due to their asexual nature
Also present in fungi except when reproducing
Amylase
Digestion of sugar/ starches
Enzyme
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch
Into sugars
Present in the saliva of human
Begins the chemical process of digestion
Present in pancreatic juice
Codominance
Relationship between two alleles
Neither ends up being recessive
Both phenotypes are expressed at the same time
Both alleles are expressed equally
Ex is skin color
This happens often when a gene has more than two alleles
Blood grouping
Three alleles- Ia, Ib and I
Ia and Ib are codominant
Both are dominant to I
This results in 4 different phenotypes
A person's blood group depends on the combination of alleles they get
Each person has only two of the three alleles
They are inherited just like alternative alleles of a pair
Golgi apparatus
An organelle present in eukaryotic cells
Responsible for the packaging and processing of proteins and lipids
Transport, modify, package
Storing, sorting and modification and export of secretory products
Assembly of vesicles
Folded membranes as well
Located near the cell membrane
Needs to produce vesicles
Lower travel distance for exocytosis
Lysosome
Membrane bound
Organelle
Contain digestive enzymes
Break down excess or worn out cell parts
Also can be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria]
Spherical organelles
Little internal structure
Made by the golgi apparatus
Contain hydrolytic enzymes- to break down components of cells
Important in cell death
Also in breaking down old organelles
Digesting bacteria that have been engulfed by phagocytosis
Are not present in plant cells
Autosome
Chromosomes in an organism that do not determine sex
Sex chromosomes are allosomes
22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of allosomes
Polysome
A group of two or more ribosomes translating a mRNA sequence simultaneously
Makes multiple copies of the same polypeptide
Appear as beads on a string
Each bead represents a ribosome
In prokaryotes, the polysomes may form while mRNA is still being transcribed from the DNA template
Ribosomes located at the 3' end (tail) of the Polysome will have longer polypeptide chains than those at the 5' end
This is because it has "read" more of the mRNA
Starts at 5'
mRNA transport
A group of two or more ribosomes
In eukaryotes, the ribosomes are separated from the genetic material (DNA and RNA) by the nucleus
After transcription, the mRNA must be transported from the nucleus through the nuclear pores
This needs to happen before translation by the ribosomes
This transport requires the RNA to be modified
Add a 5" methyl cap for protection
As well as a poly- a tail on the 3 prime end
Polyadenylation
Prokaryotes do not have compartmentalized structures like a nucleus
Transcription and translation do not have to be separated
Here is no reason for this transport
Does this mean no methyl cap and poly a tail in prokaryotes?
In prokaryotes, ribosomes can begin translation while it is still being transcribed
This is possible because translation and transcription both occur in 5 to 3 direction
Absorption spectrum
Photosynthensis
Coronary thrombosis
Formation of clot within the blood vessels that supply and sustain the heart tissue
The coronary arteries
The occlusion of a coronary artery by a blood clot may lead to a heart attack later
Acute myocardial infarction
Blood clots form in coronary arteries when the vessels are damaged due to the deposition of cholesterol over time
Atheromas
Fatty deposits
Develop in the arteries
Significantly decrease the diameter of the lumen
this process is called stenosis
The restricted blood flow increases pressure
Damage to the arterial wall due to pressure
This damaged region is repaired with fibrous tissue
This significantly reduces the elasticity of the vessel wall
As the smooth lining of the vessel degrades over time, lesions form
These lesions are called atherosclerotic plaques
If a plaque ruptures, then the blood clotting is triggered
This forma a thrombus that restricts blood flow
If the thrombus becomes dislodged it becomes an embolus which can cause blockage in a different / smaller arteriole
Fibrin
Used in blood clotting
Protein
Fibrin strands form a mesh of fibers around the platelet plug
Forms a temporary clot
Traps blood cells
When the damage region is repaired, an enzyme is activated to dissolve the clot
This enzyme is plasmin
Autosomes
Chromosomes that do not determine sex
Have them everywhere
Somatic cells
1-22
Are autosomes the chromosomes in all your body cells?
Smooth ER
Cellulose
Plant cells
Sugars
Polysaccharide
Carbohydrate polymer
Carbohydrates are one of the 4 main macromolecules - protein, lipids, and nucleic acids
There are three key polymers that can be made from glucose molecules
Linear molecule
Composed of beta glucose
Bound in a 1-4 arrangement
What does this mean
Carbon 1 on one molecule is linked to crbon 4 on another
Indigestible for most animals
This is because it is composed of beta glucose
We lack the enzyme to break it down
Ruminants like c can digest cellulose because they have specialized bacteria in their stomach to help with the digestion
Caecotrophs can also re-ingest specialized feces that contain digested cellulose
Ex rabbits
Broken down in the caecum
Caecum - pouch considered to be the beginning of the large intestine
Located on the right side of the body
Joined to the appendix
Starch
Energy storage polysaccharide
Found in plants
Composed of alpha glucose subunits
Exists in two forms
Amylose
Linear helical molecule
Amylopectin
Harder to digest
Less soluble
Takes up less space, therefore it is the preferred form of storage in plants
Glycogen
Energy storage polysaccharide
Formed in the liver of animals
Composed of alpha glucose subunits
Branching
These molecules are linked together through both 1-4 and 1-6 linkages
More highly branched than amylopectin
There is branching for every 10 subunits
Rough ER
Embedded with Ribosomes
Membrane network
Seen in both animal and plant cells
Made from flattened membrane sacs
Transports proteins between organelles
Saprotroph
Carbohydrate
Provides energy for animals
Primarily through glucose
C:H:O- 1:2:1
(CH2O)n --- n is the no of carbon atoms
Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
Phylogeny
Luteinizing hormone
Testosterone
Meiosis
Homeostasis
Monosaccharides
Most common is glucose
No of carbons ranges from 3 to 7
Most names end in ose
Ex glucose, ribose, triose
Hexoses have 6 carbons, trioses have three, pentoses have 5 carbon atoms
Bivalents
Also called tetrad
In prophase 1 , homologous chromosomes undergo a process called synapsis
They pair up to form a bivalent
Homologous chromosomes are held together at points called chiasmata/chiasma(singular)
The crossing over of genetic matter occurs at these chiasmata
New combinations are formed as a result of this exchange of genetic material
New gene combinations on chromosomes
Once new chiasmata are formed, the homologous chromosomes condense as bivalents and then are separated during meiosis
If crossing over occurs, then all 4 haploid daughter cells are genetically distinct
Stem cell
After cell differentiation, it loses its ability to become a different type of cell
Stem cells are the cells that have not yet specialized
They have two key qualities
Self renewal
They can continuously divide and replicate
Potency
They have the ability to differentiate into multiple cell types, not always all cell types
Types of stem cells
These 4 different types are present at different stages of human development
Totipotent- these can form any type of cell
They can also form extra embryonic tissue like that of the placenta
These stem cells are present in zygotes
Pluripotent
Can form any type of cell
Ex embryonic stem cells
Multipotent
Can differentiate into a number of closely related cell types
hematopoietic adult stem cells
Unipotent
Cannot differentiate into multiple cell types, but they are still capable of cell renewal
Muscle stem cells
Progenitor cells
Uses
Necessary for embryonic development
Undifferentiated cell type from which all the body cells of the future human can be derived
Note: cell types that are not capable at all of cell renewal re generally not considered to be stem cells
Since non stem cells cannot be regenerated or naturally replaced, stem cells are often used as a therapeutic option when body
Ribosome
Makes proteins
Free ribosomes just present in the cytoplasm
They could be attached to the rER
Made of RNA and proteins
Do not have a membrane around them
Minute particles
Site of protein synthesis
Eukaryotic cells
Have organelles
Prokaryotic cells
Single unicellular organism
4 common components
Plasma membrane
Outer covering that separates he cell's interior from the environment
Cytoplasm
Jelly like region
Other cellular components are found within it
DNA
Ribosomes
These cells do not have nuclei
Do not have any membrane bound organelles
The dna is found in the central area of the cell
This is a loose rea that appears darker, called the nucleoid
Pedigree chart
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Ovaries
Pancreas
Liver
Sinoatrial node
Competitive inhibition
Purkinje fibers
Chloroplast
Photosynthensis
Cellular respiration
Alleles
Dendrite
Trans and cis fats
Cisternae
Cell wall
Membrane proteins
Glycoprotein
Nerve
Synapse
Neuron
B cells
Matrix
Characteristics of a living thing
Active diffusion
Transcription
Translation
Sex linked characteristics
Passive diffusion
Davson danielli
Recombinants
The conditions that don’t exist in the parents
Happens less in linked genes
Can only be in the second generation
Water and Ch4
Enzyme substrate complex
Hemophilia
Karyotyping
Genetically modified organisms
Cloning
Food webs
Energy loss
Natural selection
Coniferophyta
Phyla
Zygote
Angiospermophyta
Bryophyta
Platyhelminthes
PCR
Disruptive selection
Natural selection
Competitive selection
Gel electrophoresis
Phosphorylation
Digestion
alimentary canal
Phylum Chordata
Bile duct
Villi
Tissue
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins
Pentadactyl limb
Helper t cells
Ovulation
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Follicle
Cyclin
HIV
Antigen
Ventilation
Respiration
Alveoli
Hormones
Central nervous system
Endocrine system
Dendrites
Insulin
Glyosidic bond
Alleles
Amylose
Amylopectin
Cytoskeleton
Peroxisome
Cisternae
Lipids
Phospholipid bilayer
synapse
Pancreatic juice
Antagonistic muscle action
Centrosome
Extracellular matrix
Caecotrophs
Vacuole
Phagocytosis
Transcription
Translation
Codon
Anticodon
Sense strand
Antisense strand
Semiconservative
Fibrinogen
Structural proteins
Fibrous proteins
Neuromuscular junction
Atherosclerosis
Gas exchange
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Nerve potential
sodium potassium pumps
Link reaction
Fermentation
Macrophages
Monoclonal antibodies
Progesterone
Testosterone