HARDWARE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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COURSE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HARDWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEMS [하드웨어 및 운영체제 기초]

⇒ Introduction to Computing Fundamentals [컴퓨팅 기초 개론] ⇐

⇒ Computing Devices and Peripherals [컴퓨팅 장치 및 주변기기] ⇐

⇒ Interfaces and Connectors [인터페이스 및 커넥터] ⇐

⇒ Internal Computer Components [컴퓨터 내부 구성 요소] ⇐

⇒ Integrated Circuit - Memory Semiconductors [집적회로 - 메모리 반도체] ⇐

⇒ Integrated Circuit - System Semiconductors, i.e., Microprocessors [집적회로 - 시스템 반도체] ⇐

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COURSE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HARDWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEMS [하드웨어 및 운영체제 기초]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING FUNDAMENTALS

⇒ Introduction to Computing Fundamentals: COMPUTER DEFINED | Computer Classifications by Size and Speed | Computer Classifications by Usage ⇐

⇒ Introduction to Computing Fundamentals Continued: 4 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTER | Advantages of Using Computer ⇐

⇒ Common Types of Computing Devices: STATIONARY DEVICES | MOBILE DEVICES | INTERNET OF THINGS DEVICES ⇐

⇒ How Computers Talk: Notational Systems Defined | Converting Numbers Between Notational Systems | Data Types | Character Types ⇐

⇒ Introduction to Operating Systems: OPERATING SYSTEM DEFINED | Operating System Generations | 4 MODERN OPERATING SYSTEMS ⇐

COMPUTING DEVICES AND PERIPHERALS

⇒ Hardware Components and Peripherals: Computing Components Defined | Internal Components | External Components | PERIPHERAL DEVICES DEFINED ⇐

⇒ Input Devices: INPUT DEVICE DEFINED | Input Device and Pointing Device Types ⇐

⇒ Output Devices: OUTPUT DEVICE DEFINED | Display Device | Print Device | Audio Device | Visual Device ⇐

⇒ Storage Devices: STORAGE DEVICE DEFINED | HARD DISK DRIVE DEFINED | HDD Performance Measurements | OPTICAL DRIVE DEFINED ⇐

⇒ Storage Devices Continued: SOLID STATE DRIVE DEFINED | USB FLASH DRIVE DEFINED | MEMORY CARD DEFINED ⇐

INTERFACES AND CONNECTORS

⇒ Identifying Ports and Connectors: PORTS AND CONNECTORS DEFINED | INTERFACE DEFINED | USB | Thunderbolt | eSATA ⇐

⇒ Identifying Graphic Devices: Display Card Defined | DISPLAY SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS | HDMI | DisplayPort | DVI ⇐

⇒ Identifying Audio Connectors: Sound Card Defined | AUDIO INTERFACE | External Audio Interface ⇐

⇒ Wired and Wireless Connections: NETWORK COMMUNICATION | WIRED CONNECTIONS | WIRELESS CONNECTIONS ⇐

⇒ Peripheral and Printer Connections: Printer Connections | Serial Cable Connections | Parallel Port Connection  ⇐

⇒ Installation Types: INSTALLATION TYPES DEFINED | IP-Based Configuration | Web-Based Configuration ⇐

INTERNAL COMPUTER COMPONENTS

⇒ Internal Computer Components: MOTHERBOARD | CHIP SETS | BUS | SOCKETS | POWER CONNECTOR ⇐

⇒ Data Processing and Storage: CPU | CPU CACHE | RAM | DIMM | EXPANSION SLOTS | Disk Controller | FIRMWARE | CMOS ⇐

⇒ Internal Storage: INTERNAL HDD | INTERNAL SSD | Optical Drives | ATA Interface | SATA INTERFACE | SCSI Interface ⇐

⇒ Display Cards and Sound Cards: VIDEO CARD | GRAPHICS PROCESSING UNIT | AUDIO CARD | MIDI INTERFACE ⇐

⇒ Network Interface Cards: NIC | WIRED AND WIRELESS NIC | MODEM ⇐

⇒ Cooling and Fans: SYSTEM COOLING | COOLING METHODS  ⇐

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT - MEMORY SEMICONDUCTORS

⇒ Random-Access Memory: RAM | SRAM [STATIC] | DRAM [DYNAMIC] | SDRAM | DDR SDRAM | HBM [HIGH-BANDWIDTH] ⇐

⇒ Read-Only Memory: ROM | EEPROM | FLASH MEMORY | NAND FLASH [NOT-AND] | NOR FLASH [NOT-OR] ⇐

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT - SYSTEM SEMICONDUCTORS, I.E., MICROPROCESSORS

⇒ Discrete Microprocessors: CPU [CENTRAL] | GPU [GRAPHIC] | TPU [TENSOR] | LPU [LANGUAGE] | NPU [NEURAL] | QPU [QUANTUM] ⇐

⇒ Integrated Microprocessors: SoC [SYSTEM ON A CHIP] | AP [APPLICATION PROCESSOR] ⇐

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING FUNDAMENTALS [컴퓨팅 기초 개론]

COMPUTER DEFINED

⇒ Computer: A device or system that includes [i] hardware, [ii] operating system software, [iii] app software, and [iv] peripherals. ⇐

⇒ Hardware: The platform that processes data based on the provided instructions and stores data. ⇐

⇒ Peripheral Devices: The devices that enable user input and output, e.g., keyboards and monitors. ⇐

⇒ Operating System Software: The software which enables and configures hardware capabilities. ⇐ 

⇒ Application Software: The software enabling computer to perform particular tasks for a user. ⇐

⇒ Users: The people who provide instructions to the computers. ⇐

Computer Classifications by Size and Speed

⇒ Supercomputers: The fastest computers which are being used for the most complex mathematical and analytical computations. ⇐

⇒ Mainframe Computers: The computers that function "at the speed of business" and are used to perform transactions and more. ⇐

⇒ Minicomputers: The computers which enable more than one person to access the same data. ⇐

⇒ Microcomputers: The single-user personal devices such as laptops, smartphones, and more. ⇐

Computer Classifications by Usage

⇒ General Purpose Computers: The computers which perform day-to-day user input and output tasks. ⇐

⇒ [Ex] creating document; saving files; web conferencing; financial analysis; data analytics; coding; other multi-function capabilities. ⇐

⇒ Special Purpose Computers: The computers intended to perform defined and limited use functions. ⇐

⇒ [Ex] IoT devices, e.g., water quality reporting sensors; WiFi-enabled appliances; weather stations; alarm systems; gaming consoles. ⇐

4 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTERS

⇒ 1. Input: The process of sending outside data into a computer system where it can be understood, processed, or acted upon. ⇐

⇒ Input Types: [i] Typing or tapping a message on a keyboard [ii] Using a voice command [iii] Clicking the Send Button for Email [iv] Entering programming commands. ⇐

⇒ 2. Processing: The computer receives the input, then converts the data into format or action that a user can recognize and use. ⇐

⇒ Central Processing Units [CPU]: Processor which is located inside computers on a system board, i.e., motherboard, usually placed centrally within the devices. ⇐

⇒ Processing Types: [i] Download an app, document, or photo [ii] Move data from one drive to another [iii] Perform programming tasks [iv] Change raw data into formats. ⇐

⇒ 3. Output: The computer delivers processed results to default or configured output devices, making the data apparent and useful. ⇐

⇒ Output Types: [i] View a document, photo, or website using a monitor [ii] Listen to a live or recorded class or song [iii] Print a document or file for later use. ⇐

⇒ 4. Storage: The saving of data to the machine's drive, an external hard drive, on network or cloud storage; saving the data for reuse. ⇐

⇒  Length of Storage: The data remains for an indefinite time unless user explicitly specifies an expiration date or delete the data.⇐

⇒ When Storage Function Happens: [i] At the same time or just after the processing function completes [ii] While the output is happening. ⇐

Advantages of Using Computers

⇒ 1. Eliminated Manual Errors: By reusing data or contents via capabilities such as copy, paste, and data deduplication. ⇐

⇒ 2. Enabled Communication Speed Up: By using the network, wireless, cellular, and other communication technologies. ⇐

⇒ 3. Enabled Exponential and Complex Computations: By applying the programming languages, processors, and memory. ⇐

⇒ 4. Saved Space: By saving data and documents to disk storage, eliminating the extra storage space needed for stacks of paper. ⇐

⇒ 5. Enabled Longer-Lasting Access: By saving digital images for perpetuity, i.e., durable and long-lasting access to information. ⇐

⇒ 6. Eliminated Drudgery of Redundant Tasks: Easier editing documents and spreadsheet work manually i.e., erasing and rewrite. ⇐

COMMON COMPUTING DEVICES

⇒ 1. Stationary Devices: Devices which remain on a desk, rack, or other stationary location, e.g., workstations, servers, and tabletop gaming consoles. ⇐

⇒ [i] Consists of a box [ii] Includes processors, storage, memory, connections, often graphic cards [iii] Connects to networks, keyboards, monitors, etc. ⇐

⇒ 2. Mobile Devices: Devices which are designed to be portable and compact, e.g., laptops, tablets, smartphones, portable gaming, and smartwatches. ⇐

⇒ [i] Portable built-in battery [ii] Supports wireless connectivity [iii] Includes integrated sensors including GPS, proximity sensors, gyroscope, accelerometer. ⇐

⇒ 3. IoT Devices: Smart physical objects embedded with computing and communication capabilities, e.g., Consumer IoT,  Enterprise IoT, Industrial IoT. ⇐

⇒ [i] Includes sensors, processors, connectivity modules [ii] Communicates via Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, NFC, Zigbee [iii] Components unupgradable; Software upgradable. ⇐

⇒ [i] Processors: CPU [ii] Storage: Hard Drive Desk; Solid State Drive [iii] Memory: Random Access Memory [iv] Graphics Cards: Graphic Processing Units ⇐

⇒ [i] Slots: Sockets on motherboard inserting internal the hardware component. [ii] Connections: External interfaces enabling interaction with external devices. ⇐

⇒ [i] Input Connections: Allow data or signals to be sent in from external devices. [ii] Output Connections: Allow data or signals to be sent out to other devices. ⇐

STATIONARY DEVICES

⇒ Workstations: The desktop computer used at the office and at home housed in a box or chassis; [OS] MS Windows, macOS, Linux Operating Systems ⇐

⇒ Connections: [i] connections for external devices [ii] onboard cards for wireless connectivity, i.e., Wi-Fi and Bluetooth ⇐

⇒ Servers: Installed as standalone units or in stacked ranks on networks enabling shared access; [OS] Windows Server, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS, FreeBSD ⇐

⇒ Functionalities: [i] Store Data [ii] Manage Data [iii] Distribute Data or Services to Other Computers Over a Network ⇐

⇒ Shared Access: [i] Media: Movies, Videos, Sounds [ii] Web Servers [iii] Print Servers [iv] File and Document Sharing [v] Email Storage ⇐

⇒ Fault Tolerance: Multiple servers can contain the same data; if one server fails, users can keep working using same data from other servers. ⇐

⇒ Gaming Consoles: Similar to desktop computers, but uses upgraded memory caching and graphics processing to enable smoother game-playing experiences. ⇐

⇒ Gaming Consoles Market Share and OS: [i] Microsoft Xbox: Xbox OS [ii] Sony Playstation: Orbis OS [iii] Nintendo: Horizon OS ⇐

MOBILES DEVICES

⇒ Laptops: Portable computers with full operating systems and built-in components; [Operating Systems] MS Windows, macOS, Linux, ChromeOS ⇐

⇒ Tablets: Touchscreen computing devices without a physical keyboard, typically less powerful; [Operating Systems] iPadOS, Android, MS Windows ⇐

⇒ Phones: Handheld communication devices with specialized chips for voice, video, internet, app functionalities; [Operating Systems] iOS, Android ⇐

⇒ Portable Gaming: Handheld systems optimized for mobile gaming with the specialized processors; [Operating Systems] Typically Linux-Derived ⇐

INTERNET OF THINGS [IoT] DEVICES

⇒ Consumer IoT Devices: Everyday smart devices used in homes for convenience, automation, and monitoring; [Operating Systems] Embedded Linux, Tizen, WearOS ⇐

⇒ Examples: Smart Speakers, Smart TVs, Fitness Trackers, Smart Appliances, Robot Vacuums, Smart Thermostats, Smart Light Bulbs, Home Security Systems ⇐

⇒ Enterprise IoT Devices: Devices used by organizations to deliver services and monitor conditions; [Operating Systems] Embedded Linux, Windows for IoT, FreeRTOS ⇐

⇒ Examples: Smart Meters, Smart Conference Rooms, Smart Lighting Systems, Security Systems, Occupancy Sensors, Fleet Management Devices, Asset Tracking ⇐

⇒ Industrial IoT Devices: Internet-connected sensors, machines, and systems used in various industrial sectors to monitor, collect, analyze, and act on data in real time. ⇐

⇒ Examples: Predictive Maintenance Sensors, Industrial Robots with IoT Modules , Smart Meters, Environmental monitoring Sensors, Connected PLCs, Smart Valves ⇐

Notational Systems Defined

⇒ Notational Systems: A system of symbols representing types of numbers, including decimal, binary, and hexadecimal which can be converted between each other. ⇐

⇒ 1. Decimal [Base 10]: [i] Numbers 0–9; continues with 10, 20, 30, etc [ii] A decimal mark " . " to represent fractional values [iii] Negative numbers with a minus sign. ⇐

⇒ 2. Binary [Base 2]: [i] Only 0 and 1, e.g., 11001 [ii] Represents an on/off state, i.e., 0 = off, 1 = on [iii] A bit is a single binary digit [iv] 1 byte = 8 bits, e.g., 01010101. ⇐

⇒ 3. Hexadecimal: [i] Uses 0–9 and A–F, where A = 10, B = 11, ..., F = 15 [ii] Used in tech identifiers such as MAC Address, Color Value, IP Address, Memory Address. ⇐

Convert Numbers Between Notational Systems

⇒ Decimal to Binary: [i] Divide the number by 2 repeatedly [ii] Note the remainders at each step [iii] Read remainders bottom to top [Ex] Decimal 18 = Binary 010010 ⇐

⇒ Binary to Decimal [Doubling Method]: [i] Start with leftmost digit [ii] Double previous value, add current digit [ii] Repeat to right [Ex] Binary 010010 = Decimal 18 ⇐

⇒ Hexadecimal to Binary: [i] Convert each hex digit to its binary equivalent number [ii] Add insignificant leading 0s to make every group 4 bits, e.g., write decimal 10 as 0010 [iii] Concatenate 4-bit binary groups from left to right [iv] Remove leading zeros from the final concatenated binary number result [Ex] Hex 123A = Binary 1001000111010 ⇐

Data Types

⇒ Data Types: The sets of instructions computers follow to perform tasks--e.g., calculations, word processing, web browsing; process and present information. ⇐

⇒ 1. Char: One alphabetic letter or symbol, e.g., A, b, c, V ⇐

⇒ 2. Strings: A group of characters, e.g., Words, Heading2 ⇐

⇒ 3. Integers: The whole numbers, e.g., 2, 4, 100, 100000 ⇐

⇒ 4. Floats: A number with a decimal, e.g., 3.14, 100.25, 0.5 ⇐

⇒ 5. Boolean: Two opposite values, e.g., True/False, Yes/No ⇐

Character Types

⇒ Character Types: How computers interpret character symbols in binary form; allow computers to store and process letter, digit, punctuation, symbol as data. ⇐

⇒ 1. ASCII [American Standard Code for Information Interchange]: [i] Expanded to 8-bit system for 356 characters [ii] Maps binary values to text characters. ⇐

⇒ 2. UTF-8 [Unicode]: [i] Includes ASCII characters, foreign language, emojis [ii] Used in 95% of webpages [iii] Assigns hexadecimal code points to a character. ⇐

OPERATING SYSTEM DEFINED

⇒ Operating Systems: A standardized backbone code managing input, output, processing, and storage; allows communication between users and computer. ⇐

⇒ Kernel: The essential component of operating system which acts as the primary interface between a physical computer hardware and software processes. ⇐

⇒ Purposes of OS: [i] Ensures data integrity and prevents data loss. [ii] Eliminates the need to manually recreate necessary code for computer actions. ⇐

⇒ Environment #1 - Command Line Interface [CLI]: Where user can type commands, e.g., typing commands into terminal on macOS. ⇐

⇒ Environment #2 - Graphical User Interface [GUI]: The visual elements--e.g., menus, links, buttons, fields--that help user to interact. ⇐

Operating System Generations

⇒ 1945-1955: [Generation 1]: [i] No multi-computer operating systems [ii] Each computer parameters were created manually for each task using machine language. ⇐

⇒ 1955-1965: [Generation 2]: [i] Emergence of mainframe computers. [ii] Tape Drives for input/output storage [iii] Embedded Operating Systems: focusing on a single task and providing low latency, i.e., split-second response time. [iv] Real-Time Operating Systems [RTOS]: in airplanes, space explorations, air traffic control, satelites, robotics. ⇐

⇒ 1965-1980: [Generation 3]: [i] Batch File Operating Systems: in large systems [ii] Network Operating Systems: communication to be scalable, fast, accurate, and secure; workstations to operate independently on network [iv] UNIX: installed on multiple systems; featured processor timesharing for multi-user interaction in central computers. ⇐

⇒ 1980-Now: [Generation 4]: [i] Multitasking Operating Systems: to perform multiple and complex tasks simultaneously [ii] Mobile Operating System: also multitasking. ⇐

4 MODERN OPERATING SYSTEMS

⇒ Linux: An open-source Unix-Like OS based on the Linux kernel; known for its stability and flexibility; widely used in servers, cloud platforms, embedded systems. ⇐

⇒ [i] Created by Linus Torvalds as a small personal OS project [iii] In 1996, Version 2.0 introduced Symmetric Multiprocessing [SMP], gaining popularity in commercial and scientific computing [iv] Android--based on Linux--reached 75% mobile market share [v] IBM acquired Red Hat--a leading Linux distributor [distro]--for 34 billion USD. ⇐

⇒ Distro [Linux-Distribution]: A complete OS package built on top of the Linux kernel which includes a package manager, system libraries, a desktop environment, etc. ⇐

⇒ Linux-Based vs. Unix-Based: While Unix is derived directly from original and proprietary source code, Linux is derived from open-source codes to be freely modified. ⇐

⇒ Enterprise Operating System: The OS specifically designed for businesses and the large-scale environment which prioritizes stability, security, and long-term support. ⇐

⇒ Microsoft Windows: An OS developed by Microsoft designed for personal, business, enterprise uses; known for a user-friendly GUI and wide software compatibility. ⇐

⇒ [i] Originated from PC-DOS and MS-DOS [ii] Windows introduced as a GUI layer on top of MS-DOS [iii] Dominant Consumer OS; 70% desktop market share by 2021 ⇐

⇒ Apple Exclusive macOS: A Unix-Based OS developed by Apple; known for its user interface, security features, tight integration with Apples hardware and software. ⇐

⇒ [i] Originally ran on PowerPC processors [ii] Apple transitioned to Intel processors [iii] Introduced Apple Silicon [M1 chips]: 64-bit ARM processors designed in-house. ⇐

⇒ Google Chrome OS: A lightweight Linux-Based OS developed by Google; around Chrome web browser; primarily for web-based applications and cloud computing. ⇐

⇒ [i] Limited local storage needs [ii] Optimized for speed, simplicity, security [iii] Commonly used in education and by cost-conscious users [iv] 10% of Laptop OS Market. ⇐

COMPUTING DEVICES AND PERIPHERALS [컴퓨팅 장치 및 주변기기]

Computing Component Defined

⇒ Computer Component [Hardware]: A physical part needed for computer functioning where each performs a specific tasks; can be internal or external. ⇐

⇒ Examples: [i] Internal Components: CPU, RAM, Network Interface Card, Internal SSD [ii] External Components: USB Flash Drive, External SSD ⇐

⇒ Examples: [i] Core Component: CPU, RAM, Motherboard, Power Supply [ii] Peripheral Device: WiFi Card, Keyboard, Internal Optical Disk Drive ⇐

⇒ In this section, the contents are discussing peripheral devices, while internal components will be discussed in section 4, e.g., internal storage device discussed later. ⇐

Internal Components

⇒ Internal Components: The essential physical parts located inside computer case for the system to function, e.g., processor, memory, storage, graphics card, etc. ⇐

⇒ Memory Devices: A component for temporary working memory where the data gets lost when power goes off, e.g., RAM. ⇐

⇒ Storage Devices: A component for permanent data storage which retains data even after power goes off, e.g., HDD, SSD. ⇐

⇒ Central Processing Unit [CPU]: A component performing calculations which is considered the “brain” of the computers. ⇐

⇒ Graphic Processing unit [GPU]: A component with parallel processing for both graphics rendering and AI computation. ⇐

External Components

⇒ External Components: The physical parts located outside the computer case which connect to the system via ports or wireless signals, e.g., external hard drive. ⇐

⇒ Ports: The jack or receptacle in which a connector is plugged in, e.g., USB or HDMI Port; standardized based on function. ⇐

⇒ Connectors: The unique end of a plug, jack, or card that connects into a port, e.g., an external HDMI connector on a cable. ⇐

PERIPHERAL DEVICES DEFINED

⇒ Core Components: The essential internal parts which are opposite of peripherals: [i] processor [ii] memory [iii] storage. ⇐

⇒ Peripheral Devices: A device that connects to a computer to provide extra functionalities; can be internal and external. ⇐

⇒ [i] Internal Peripheral: A WiFi Card installed on PCIe Slot [ii] External Peripheral: A speaker connected via Bluetooth. ⇐

⇒ Peripheral Types: [i] Input Device [ii] Output Device [iii] Storage Device ⇐

⇒ Input Device: A device which sends data to the computer, e.g., mouse and keyboard. ⇐

⇒ Output Device: A component which receives data from the computer, e.g., monitor and printer. ⇐

⇒ Storage Device: A component which stores data permanently, e.g., external hard drive and USB drive. ⇐

INPUT DEVICE DEFINED

⇒ Input Device: A device which sends data to the computer, including pointing devices, cameras, microphones, etc. ⇐

⇒ Pointing Device: An input device used to move a cursor on computer screen for navigation and sending commands. ⇐

Input Device and Pointing Device Types

⇒ Keyboard [Can Be Pointing]: A device used primarily to input data; attached via USB [Universal Serial Bus] Port, wireless connection, or be built into. ⇐

⇒ Mouse [Pointing]: The most-used input device used primarily to input data and move the cursor; can be connected via USB port or wireless connection. ⇐

⇒ Touchpad [Pointing]: A device most used on laptops; usually built into laptops, but can be connected externally using USB port or wireless connection. ⇐

⇒ Joystick [Pointing]: A device that moves the cursor and is often used to play games; can be connected externally via a USB port or wireless connection. ⇐

⇒ Stylus [Pointing]: A device used to interact with touchscreens via capacitive sensing, sending heat and pressure data to tablets for writing and drawing. ⇐

⇒ Cameras: A device such as a webcam, which first captures visual data including images or video and sends it to the computer for processing or display. ⇐

⇒ Microphones: A device which first captures audio signals such as voice or other sound and converts them into digital data which the computer can use. ⇐

OUTPUT DEVICE DEFINED

⇒ Output Device: A component which receives data from the computer, including displays, printers, scanners, audio, etc. ⇐

⇒ Functionality of Output Devices: A computer can still function, but there is no way to determine what the computer is doing. i.e., no indicator of errors. ⇐

⇒ Output and Input in One Device #1 : Headphone both [i] receives data by playing the audio for the user and [ii] sends audio data with microphone to the device. ⇐

⇒ Output and Input in One Device #2 : Printers both [i] receives data by printing files for the users and [ii] sends data by scanning and sending papers to the device. ⇐

⇒ Types of Output Device: Monitors | Printers | Speakers | Headphones | Projectors | GPS Devices | Sound Cards | Video Cards | Optical Mark Readers | Braile Readers ⇐

Display Device

⇒ Display Device: A hardware component for the output of information in visual form; commonly seen as television sets and computer monitors. ⇐

⇒ Cathode Ray Tube Monitor [CRT]: An analog device that creates an image on the screen by directing three electron beams over millions of phosphor dots. ⇐

⇒ Flat Screens, i.e., Liquid Crystal Display [LCD] or Thin Film Transistor [TFT]: A digital signal drives the color value of each picture element, i.e., pixel. ⇐

⇒ Touch Screens: A touch panel on an electronic display based on capacitive technology which measures heat and pressure; found in smartphones and tablets. ⇐

⇒ Projectors: An output device which takes images from a computer and display them on a screen, wall, or other surface; images are still or moving pictures. ⇐

⇒ Screen Resolution: Refers to clarity of the text and images displayed on the screen; at higher resolutions, e.g., 1600 x 1200 pixels, items appear sharper. ⇐

Print Device

⇒ Print Device: A machine for putting text or pictures onto paper. ⇐

⇒ Laser Printers: Laser, or thermal, printers use a laser beam to create an electrostatic image on a drum, which is then transferred onto paper using powdered toner. ⇐

⇒ LED Printers: With a photoreceptive drum, i.e., positively charged surface with static electricity by a high voltage wire, paper passes between two heated rollers. ⇐

⇒ Inkjet Printers: With a print head containing thousands of tiny holes, microscopic droplets of ink are put onto paper; uses a liquid ink produced by colored dye. ⇐

⇒ Thermal Printers: Driving heated pins against special heat-sensitive paper to “burn” the image onto the paper; used in point-of-sale terminal and fax machine. ⇐

⇒ Networked vs. Local Printer: [Networked] Connected to a network using Ethernet or Wi-Fi [Local] Cabled to a device that requires a print.⇐

⇒ Networked - IP Based: A part of an IP Network, often referring to Unix computers that use a specific protocol for printing. ⇐

⇒ Networked - Web Based: Receive documents via a network and the Internet, rather than a direct connection to a computer. ⇐

⇒ Image Scanner: A machine which optically scans images, printed text, or an object, then converts them from analog format to a digital image. ⇐

⇒ Facsimile [Fax] Machines: A device to send documents over telephone network; transmissions with fax machine, computer, or online fax service. ⇐

⇒ Multifunction Device [MFD]: Often the functions of a printer, scanner, and fax machine are combined all in one device. ⇐

Audio Device

⇒ Audio Devices: The components that reproduce, record, or process sound, e.g., headphones, CD players, speakers, amplifiers. ⇐

⇒ Needs of Sound: [i] Own its own, computers can not make a sound [ii] The digital data from audio and video files need to be turned into sound. ⇐

Visual Device

⇒ Visual Devices: The units capable of presenting images electronically on a screen, e.g., smartphones, monitors, laptop computers. ⇐

⇒ Common Size of a Display: The visual devices typically have a display greater than four inches when measured diagonally; includes cameras. ⇐

STORAGE DEVICE DEFINED

⇒ Storage Device: A hardware component which can be used to store digital data, i.e., repository for images, video, audio, and text., ⇐

⇒ Drive: A type of storage device designed to store and retrieve digital data via physical internal and external components or network. ⇐

⇒ Non-Volatile Characteristic: The data are stored permanently and can be retained even without power, unlike a memory component. ⇐

HARD DISK DRIVE DEFINED

⇒ Hard Disk Drive [HDD]: A type of drive which works by a drive head reading and writing data to magnetic platters; can be internal or external. ⇐

⇒ [2.5" HDD] Useful in notebook computers and mobile devices. [Standard 3.5" HDD] Run from 500 GB to several TB, but cloud storage is more accessible. ⇐

⇒ Common Interface #1 - SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment): A most common modern standard to connect internal storage device to motherboard. ⇐

⇒ Common Interface #2 - PATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment): A much older and slower interface standard for connecting internal storage devices. ⇐

⇒ External Hard Disk Drive Interface - USB or eSATA: The connectors which allow external HDDs with 250 GB to 20 TB capacity to support backup and transfer. ⇐

HDD Performance Measurements

⇒ 1. Spin Speed [RPM]: How fast do platters rotate, e.g., 5400 or 7200 RPM; the faster RPM translates into better performance. ⇐

⇒ 2. Access Time: How much time does HDD take to locate data on platters; 5–10 milliseconds typically means fast access time. ⇐

⇒ 3. Transfer Rate: The speed of reading data or writing data to the disk or from the disk; measured in Megabytes Per Seconds. ⇐

OPTICAL DRIVE DEFINED

⇒ Optical Drive: Data is written to drive via laser pressing to create recessed areas, i.e., pits, and raised areas, i.e., lands; laser reads and writes on these areas. ⇐

⇒ Single-Sided Disc: [Layer] 1 recordable layer [Typical Capacity] 4.7 GB for DVD ROM & 700 MB for CD. ⇐

⇒ Double-Sided Disc:  [Layer] 2 recordable layer [Typical Capacity] About 2X capacity of Single-Sided Disc. ⇐

⇒ Disc Types: CD-ROM | CD-RW | DVD-ROM | DVD-RW | Blu-ray with 5X+ storage capacity than DVDs. ⇐

SOLID STATE DRIVE DEFINED

⇒ Solid State Drive [SSD]: A type of drive which uses integrated circuit assemblies to store data using flash memory; used as permanent internal or external storage. ⇐

⇒ No Moving Parts Characteristic: Unlike HDDs or Optical Drives, there are no moving parts in SSDs which makes it fast, durable, and energy efficient. ⇐

USB FLASH DRIVE DEFINED

⇒ Expansion Drive: A device to provide extra storage for an ever-growing collection of files and free computer storage space; typically attaches with a USB connection. ⇐

⇒ Examples of Expansion Drive: External Hard Disk Drive | External Solid State Drive | USB Flash Drive, i.e., Thumb Drive ⇐

⇒ USB Flash Drive: A portable storage device based on Flash memory with an integrated USB interface; weigh less than 1 oz and have about 2 TB as storage capacity. ⇐

MEMORY CARD DEFINED

⇒ Memory Card: A storage device based on Flash memory that is stored inside a device; commonly used in portable devices, e.g., digital cameras, cell phones, laptops. ⇐

⇒ Formats and Data Capacities: [SD] Available in Secure Digital Format [MSD] Available in Micro Secure Digital Format [Capacities] 32 GB, 64 GB, 128 GB, 512 GB. ⇐

INTERFACES AND CONNECTORS [인터페이스 및 커넥터]

PORTS AND CONNECTORS DEFINED

⇒ Ports: A hole or a slot that receives a connector and allows a device to physically connect to a computer. ⇐

⇒ Connectors: A plug at the end of a cable, jack, or electronic card that can be physically plugged into a port. ⇐

⇒ Role of Ports and Connectors: The external components connect to a computer with ports and connectors. ⇐

⇒ Examples of Physical Ports and Connectors Pairs: USB port, HDMI port, Displayport, and Speaker port. ⇐

INTERFACE DEFINED

⇒ Interface: The point of communication between two or more entities; can be either hardware-based or software-based. ⇐

⇒ Hardware-Based Interface: [i] A point where components connect to motherboard, [ii] peripherals connect to computer, [iii] a touchscreen ⇐

⇒ Software-Based Interface: Provides routes for communication between software applications, operating system, and hardware, e.g., drivers. ⇐

USB

⇒ Universal Serial Bus [USB]: An interface built with a common, simple-to-use, and fast standard that could be used across devices and peripherals. ⇐

⇒ Interface - USB 1 in 1996: [Connector Types] Type A, Type B, Mini A, and Mini B [Speed] 1.5 to 12 Megabits Per Second ⇐

⇒ Interface - USB 2 in 2001: [Connector Types] + Mini AB, Micro A, Micro B, Micro AB [Speed] 480 Megabits Per Second ⇐

⇒ Interface - USB 3.1 in 2014: [Connector Types] Type C, backward compatible with USB 2 [Speed] 5 Gigabits Per Second ⇐

⇒ Interface - USB 3.2 in 2017: [Connector Types] Mini connector types were discontinued [Speed] 20 Gigabits Per Second ⇐

⇒ Interface - USB 4 in 2018: [Interface] Based on Thunderbolt 3 and 4 Protocols by Intel [Speed] 40 Gigabits Per Second ⇐

⇒ Connector - USB Type A: [# of Pins] 4 Pins [Usage] For keyboards and mice. ⇐

⇒ Connector - USB Type B: [# of Pins] 4 Pins [Usage] For printers and scanners. ⇐

⇒ Connector - Mini USB: [# of Pins] 9 Pins [Usage] For digital camera, mobile phone, tablet.  ⇐

⇒ Connector - Micro USB: [# of Pins] 5 Pins [Usage] To replace Mini USB with same usage. ⇐

⇒ Connector - USB Type C: [# of Pins] 24 Pins [Usage] Meant to replace A&B; future-proof ⇐

Thunderbolt

⇒ Thunderbolt: An interface developed by Intel and Apple which combines data transfer, display, and power in 1 cable; daisy chaining allows up to 6 devices. ⇐

⇒ Interface - Thunderbolt Version 1 and 2: [Connector Types] A Mini DisplayPort, abbreviated MDP ⇐

⇒ Interface - Thunderbolt Version 3: [Connector Types] USB Type C [Speed] 40 Gigabits Per Second ⇐

⇒ Interface - Thunderbolt Version 4: [Connector Types] USB Type C [vs. Version 3] Supports USB 4 ⇐

eSATA

⇒ External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment [eSATA]: An interface used to connect external storage devices, e.g., External HDD; allows hot swapping. ⇐

⇒ Interface - eSATAp in 2008: An interface which supports both eSATA and USB connectors through the same port. ⇐

Display Card Defined

⇒ Display Card: The computers communicate with a display unit such as a computer monitor using display cards called the Graphics Processing Unit, i.e., GPU. ⇐

⇒ Display Cards Location: The generic graphic cards are built into a motherboard; cards are good for everyday computing requirements. ⇐

⇒ Display Cards Usage: Several graphic heavy tasks, e.g., multimedia editing and 3D gaming require specialized high-end graphic adapters. ⇐

⇒ GPU Options: [AMD] Radeon Chipsets [NVIDIA] GeForce and nForce Chipsets [Others Companies] Silicon Integrated Systems, Intel, etc. ⇐

DISPLAY SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

⇒ Display System Characteristic - Resolution: The number of horizontal and vertical pixels, which determines the clarity of an image or text. ⇐

⇒ Display System Characteristic - Refresh Rate: Governs video playback quality based on how fast the screen refreshes to show a new image. ⇐

⇒ Display System Characteristic - Bit Depth: The total number of supported colors which dictates how close the digital colors are to real life. ⇐

⇒ Bandwidth: The rate of digital data flow to the monitor which depends on three elements: resolution. refresh rate, color depth; unit in GBP. ⇐

⇒ Display Quality and Display Card: The display quality is directly linked to the amount of processing power required from display card. ⇐

⇒ Control Processing Power: It is possible to display low resolution visuals on a high-end display to reduce the need for processing power. ⇐

⇒ Evolution of Display System - Video Graphic Array [VGA] Standard: [Width to Height Ratio] 4:3 [Resolution] 640 x 480 Pixels [Refresh Rate] 60 Hz ⇐

⇒ Evolution of Display System - Extended Graphic Array [XGA] Standard: [Width to Height Ratio] 4:3 [Resolution] 1024 x 768 Pixels [Bit Depth] 32-Bit ⇐

⇒ Evolution of Display System - Light-Emitting Diode [LED]: [Width to Height Ratio] 16:9 [Resolution] 1920~7680 x 1080~4320 Pixels for Full HD, 4K, 8K ⇐

HDMI

⇒ High-Definition Multimedia Interface [HDMI]: The latest interface for digital audio and video for televisions, computers, and other consumer electronics. ⇐

⇒ HDMI Functionalities: Beyond just data transfers, HDMI also provides [i] Remote Control, i.e., CEC support, and [ii] digital content protection, i.e., HDCP. ⇐

⇒ Connector - HDMI 2.1: [# of Pins] 19 Pins [Usage] For regular connections.  ⇐

⇒ Connector - HDMI Mini: [# of Pins] 19 Pins [Usage] For portable electronics. ⇐

⇒ Connector - Micro HDMI: [# of Pins] 19 Pins [Usage] For GoPro, Smartphones  ⇐

DisplayPort

⇒ DisplayPort: Developed by the Video Electronics Standards Association, an interface designed to complement HDMI and offer a royalty-free alternative.⇐

⇒ Packetized Data Transmission: Allows DisplayPort to transmit higher bandwidths over fewer pins, thereby resulting in almost loss-less data transmission ⇐

⇒ Connector - DisplayPort: [# of Pins] 20 Pins: 12 for Main Link, 3 for Auxiliary Channel, 1 for Hot Plug Detection, 2 for Power, and 2 Additional Ground Pins ⇐

⇒ Strength of DisplayPort Connector: Supports 7 transmission modes--mechanism data is transfer between devices--for progressively increasing bandwidth. ⇐

⇒ Mini DisplayPort: Apple provides a free license for the smaller size version of Standard DisplayPort which supports up to 4K resolution.⇐

DVI

⇒ Digital Visual Interface [DVI]: The interface which was an industry standard for digital video content transmission; connects a video source to a display. ⇐

⇒ Uncompressed Digital Video Transmission: [i] DVI transmits uncompressed digital video and [ii] support both analog and digital devices in following formats. ⇐

⇒ Connector - DVI-I: [Interface] DVI [# of Pins] 23 Pins configured for both digital and analog. ⇐

⇒ Connector - DVI-A: [Interface] DVI [# of Pins] 17 Pins configured for only analog equipment. ⇐

⇒ Connector - DVI-D: [Interface] DVI [# of Pins] 19 Pins configured for only digital equipment. ⇐

⇒ Single-Link and Dual-Link Formats: Connectors come in both formats; dual-link provides high bandwidth. ⇐

⇒ DVI Is Replaced: DVI interface was popular, but has been replaced by HDMI, DisplayPort, and Thunderbolt. ⇐

Sound Card Defined

⇒ Sound Card: Computer programs use an internal expansion audio card--also known as the sound card--to transmit audio signals into and out of a computer. ⇐

⇒ Digital-to-Analog Converter: The sound cards have a digital-to-analog converter to help external analog devices connect and communicate with the computer. ⇐

⇒ Sound Card and Audio Devices: Depending on the sound card, it can have ports to connect a variety of devices, e.g., headphones, speakers, microphones, etc. ⇐

AUDIO INTERFACE

⇒ Audio Interface: A hardware-based interface to convert analog audio signals into digital signals and vice versa, allowing to record, process, and play audio. ⇐

⇒ Connector - Tip-Ring-Sleeve [TRS]: A type of audio connector commonly used for both mono balanced and stereo unbalanced audio signal. ⇐

⇒ Tip, Ring, Sleeve Definitions: [Tip] Carries one audio signal, left or positive [Ring] Carries another signal, right or negative [Sleeve] Ground. ⇐

⇒ Sound Card Ports: The number of connectors and ports on a sound card depend on the requirements; sound cards ports accept a 6.35mm Tip, Ring, and TRS jack. ⇐

⇒ Ports Color Codes: [Light-Blue] Analog Line In [Pink] Microphone In [Lime-Green] Audio Line-Out [Black] Left and Right Rear Surround [Orange] Mid-Surround ⇐

External Audio Interfaces

⇒ External Audio Interfaces: A single external audio interface can connect to multiple input and output devices such as amplifiers, microphones, speakers, etc. ⇐

⇒ Professionals and Studios Usage: The professionals and studios use external audio interfaces for better sound quality and amplified sound. ⇐

NETWORK COMMUNICATION

⇒ Communication Technology: Allows components to communicate over a network by converting information into data packets from one device to another in dialogue. ⇐

⇒ Data Packets: Like papers in an envelope, each data packet contains information about the sending and receiving device along with the message to be transmitted. ⇐

⇒ Functionalities: [i] Ensures that only the designated device receives the information. [ii] Devices talk over a network to communicate with each other. ⇐

⇒ Network Type - Closed: A finite number of devices can be connected over the closed network. ⇐

⇒ Network Type - Open: An unlimited number of devices can be connected on an open network.⇐

WIRED CONNECTORS

⇒ Registered Jack [RJ]: A standardized telecommunication network interface for connecting voice and data equipment to a service provider’s network. ⇐

⇒ Connector - RJ-11: A connector which is used to plug a phone into a wall outlet and for connecting a handset to a telephone. ⇐

⇒ Connector - RJ-45: A connector which is used to connect computers and other internet-enabled devices to Ethernet-Based Local Area Networks [E-LANs]. ⇐

⇒ RJ-45 Connectable Internet-Enabled Devices: Wired Credit Card Readers, Servers, Modems, Gaming Consoles, Smart TVs, Tobii Eye Tracker Hardware, etc. ⇐

⇒ Wired Connection Benefit - Data Transmission: Up to 5 Gigabits Per Second; Wireless is at 1 Gigabits Per Second. ⇐

⇒ Wired Connection Benefit - High Reliability: More reliable than wireless; immune to signal drops and dead zones. ⇐

⇒ Wired Connection Benefit - Less Prone to Radio Interference: Fewer dropped packets lead into stability and speed.⇐

⇒ Wireless Connection Benefit - More Secure: The physical connectivity makes the connection less prone for hacking.⇐

WIRELESS CONNECTORS

⇒ Wireless Fidelity [Wi-Fi]: A network connection used to connect devices to the Internet; connects a wireless router directly to an Internet modem. ⇐

⇒ Modulator-Demodulator [Modem]: A hardware device which brings internet service into the home from Internet Service Providers [ISPs]. ⇐

⇒ Router: A hardware device which delivers the internet connection to the devices at home or office, allowing them to connect through Wi-Fi. ⇐

⇒ Some newer modems have built-in routers, removing the need for a separate device. ⇐

⇒ Bluetooth: A network connection which uses Ultra High-Frequency radio waves to connect devices one-on-one through pairing over short distances. ⇐

⇒ Connection Establish: The Bluetooth connection is established through pairing in which devices send a passkey to recognize each other. ⇐

⇒ Radio-Frequency Identification [RFID]: A network connection used to identify and track objects using the tags; operates over several hundred meters. ⇐

⇒ Use Cases: Automatic collection of road tolls via tags on windshields, implanted identification in pets, track pharmaceuticals in warehouses. ⇐

⇒ Near Field Communication [NFC]: A network connection which works over extremely short distances to transmit data via electromagnetic radio fields. ⇐

⇒ NFC Connection Criteria: [i] Both devices must contain NFC chips [ii] A shorter range results in power-efficiency and security by reducing accidental triggers. ⇐

⇒ NFC Common Use Cases: Hotel Key Cards | Office Access Cards, e.g., UC San Diego Student ID | Digital Wallets, e.g., Apple Pay | Chip-Enabled Credit Cards ⇐

⇒ Wireless Connection Benefit - Increased Mobility: Move from one location to another without losing connectivity. ⇐

⇒ Wireless Connection Benefit - Reduced Set-Up Time: A quicker and easier set-up than wired network installation. ⇐

⇒ Wireless Connection Benefit - Wider Reach: Capable to be extended to wide areas even where cables can not run. ⇐

⇒ Wireless Connection Benefit - Lower Cost of Ownership: A higher economic benefit by reducing equipment cost. ⇐

Printer Connections

⇒ Stand-Alone Peripheral and Printer Connections: [i] USB Cable Connections [ii] Wireless Connections: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, NFC ⇐

⇒ Three Remaining Printer Connection Methods: [i] Serial Port Connection [ii] Parallel Port Connection [iii] Network Connection ⇐

Serial Cable Connections

⇒ Serial Cable Connections: A connection which offers longer distance travel, better noise immunity, and cross-manufacturer compatibility. ⇐

⇒ Serial Cable Connections Characteristics: [i] Less common today [ii] RS232 is a recommended standard protocol [iii] Transmits data slowly. ⇐

Parallel Port Connection

⇒ Parallel Port Connections: A connection which can send and receive multiple bits simultaneously, making them faster than serial ports. ⇐

⇒ Serial Cable Connections Characteristics: [i] Less common [ii] Often replaced by USB and modern connections [iiii] 25 Pins Connection. ⇐

INSTALLATION TYPES DEFINED

⇒ Installation: The process of making hardware and/or software ready for use; different systems require different types of installations. ⇐

⇒ Different Installation Levels: Some installations are straightforward; others are more complex and may require involvement of specialists. ⇐

⇒ Plug and Play [PnP]: Describes a device which work with a computer system as soon as they are connected; the user does not have to manually install drivers. ⇐

⇒ Malfunctioning Devices: The malfunctioning devices should be investigated in Device Manager--a part of OS--for indications of a problem. ⇐

⇒ Driver: The software that allows a device to talk to the operating system; updating driver for malfunctioning hardware device can restore proper PnP function. ⇐

⇒ Resolving Common Cause of Device Malfunction: On the list of installed devices on Device Manager, update the device with yellow icon. ⇐

IP-Based Configuration

⇒ Configuration: While installing a device is making it ready for use, configuring a device means setting up to work according to user preference. ⇐

⇒ IP-Based Peripherals: The hardware devices which are connected to a Transmission Control Protocol [TCP] or Internet Protocol [IP] Network. ⇐

⇒ IP-Based Peripherals Examples: Wireless Routers, Security Cameras, Network Printers, Multifunctional Devices. ⇐

⇒ Connectivity: IP-Based Peripherals must be connected  to a Local Area Network [LAN] or the Internet to function. ⇐

Web-Based Configuration

⇒ Web-Based Configuration: A configuration which is used for networking devices such as routers; set-up process is easily done through a web page.⇐

⇒ Where to Find Web-Based Configuration: Web-Based Configuration is generally found on the website of manufacturer. ⇐

INTERNAL COMPUTER COMPONENTS [컴퓨터 내부 구성 요소]

MOTHERBOARD

⇒ Motherboard or Mainboard: The Main Printed Circuit Board--PCB--in computers and other expandable systems which contains significant subsystems. ⇐

⇒ Subsystems Types: [i] Chip Set I/O [ii] Memory Controllers [iii] Interface Connectors [iv] Other Components Integrated for General Uses ⇐

⇒ Motherboard Allows Communication Among Crucial Electronic Components: [i] Central Processing Unit [ii] Memory [iii] Peripherals ⇐

CHIP SET

⇒ Integrated Circuit [IC]: A miniature assembly of electronic components--transistors, resistors, capacitors--built on a thin substrate of semiconductor material. ⇐

⇒ Chip Set: A set of integrated circuits--assembled with electronic components--which manages data flow among the processor, memory, and peripherals. ⇐

⇒ Data Flow: The movement and management of digital signals--instruction, files, commands, and sensor input--between various hardware components. ⇐

⇒ Chip Set Manages Data Flow: The Chip Set controls how and where data moves between the CPU, memory, input and output, GPU, storage devices, etc. ⇐

⇒ 2 Distinct Chips in Single Chip Set: [i] Northbridge Chip: Connects the CPU with RAM and GPU [ii] Southbridge Chip: Slower I/O such as BIOS, USB. ⇐

⇒ Northbridge Chip: A first half of core logic chipset on a motherboard; connects directly to the CPU via the front-side bus; is responsible for high-performance tasks. ⇐

⇒ Southbridge Chip: A second half of core logic chipset on a motherboard; not directly connected to the CPU; is responsible to implement slower-performance tasks. ⇐

⇒ Intel Platform Controller Hub [Intel PCH]: A single-chip chipset released in 2009 as a replacement for the older Northbridge and Southbridge chipsets ⇐

BUS

⇒ Bus: A high-speed internal connection embedded as printed circuits on the motherboard; controls signals and data among CPU and internal component. ⇐

⇒ Front-Side Bus: A computer communication interface which carries data between the CPU and Memory Controller Hub [MCH], i.e., Northbridge Chip.⇐

⇒ Chip Set vs. Bus - Function: [Chip Set] Controls what data goes and where [Bus] Simply moves data between components. ⇐

⇒ Chip Set vs. Bus - Form: [Chip Set] One or more integrated circuits [Bus] The wires, traces, or circuits for communications. ⇐

⇒ Chip Set vs. Bus - Sample: [Chip Set] Northbridge Chip, Southbridge Chip [Bus] Front-Side Bus, PLIe Bus, SATA Bus, etc. ⇐

SOCKET

⇒ Socket: The array of pins designed with the securing mechanism which [i] holds a processor in place and [ii] connects the processor to the motherboard. ⇐

⇒ Socket Pin Connection: The socket pin connections differ depending on which generation of CPU the motherboard supports. ⇐

⇒ Older Socket - Pin Grid Array [PGA]: The socket which use short and stiff pins on the CPU which align with holes on the socket. ⇐

⇒ Newer Socket - Land Grid Array [LGA]: The socket which uses pins built into the motherboard and the CPUs have contact points. ⇐

POWER CONNECTOR

⇒ Power Connector: A device found on a motherboard which allows an electrical current to pass through; connectors join power supply to a motherboard. ⇐

⇒ Advanced Technology Extended [ATX] Style Power Connector: One of the larger power connectors inside a computer; larger than most connectors. ⇐

CPU

⇒ Central Processing Unit [CPU]: A silicon chip in a special socket on the motherboard which contain billions of microscopic transistors on a single chip. ⇐

⇒ CPU Transistors: The transistors enable the computer calculations needed to run programs available in the computer system memory. ⇐

⇒ 32-Bit CPU: [i] Transfers 32 bits of data per clock cycle [ii] Comparable to a two-lane information highway [iii] common in laptops, workstations, servers. ⇐

⇒ 64-Bit CPU: [i] Transfers 64 bits of data per clock cycle [ii] Comparable to a four-lane information highway [iii] common in laptops, workstations, servers. ⇐

CPU CACHE

⇒ CPU Cache: A small and high-speed memory which stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce data access time from main memory. ⇐

⇒ Static RAM [SRAM]: CPU Cache is built using SRAM (faster, but more expensive than DRAM); operates at processor speed; stores temporary data. ⇐

⇒ Cache Level 1 [L1]: Located on the CPU Chip, L1 is the smallest and fastest cache to store critical data per core. ⇐

⇒ Cache Level 2 [L2]: Located on or near the CPU, L2 is the medium and fast cache to store recently accessed data. ⇐

⇒ Cache Level 3 [L3]: Near the CPU, L3 is a largest and slowest cache to store shared instructions among all cores. ⇐

RAM

⇒ Random-Access Memory [RAM]: A memory which temporarily stores working data and machine code; is volatile as the data is lost when power turns off. ⇐

⇒ RAM Performance: [Measurement] Speed is measured in Megahertz, MHz [Current Range] Varies by form, speed, capacity from 1333 MHz to 2133 MHz. ⇐

⇒ Dynamic Random Access Memory [DRAM]: Each bit of data is stored in a separate capacitor within the IC; transistors and capacitors.  ⇐

⇒ Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory [SDRAM]: A type of DRAM that is synchronized with the system clock of the CPU. ⇐

⇒ Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory [DDR SDRAM]: An advanced type of SDRAM which fetches data twice per clock cycle. ⇐

⇒ Double Data Rate 3 Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory [DDR3 SDRAM]: An advanced type of DDR2 SDRAM, twice faster data transfer rate. ⇐

⇒ Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory [DDR4 SDRAM]: Improved data transfer rate, ranging from 1600MHz to 3200+ MHz. ⇐

⇒ High Bandwidth Memory [HBM]: An advanced type of SDRAM designed by stacking multiple memory dies vertically; in graphics cards, AI accelerators, etc. ⇐

DIMM

⇒ Memory Slot: The physical slots which allow insertion of a memory module on the motherboard; enables motherboard to communicate with memory. ⇐

⇒ Memory Slots Characteristics: [i] 2 to 4 memory slots exist on motherboard; more slots for high-end [ii] RAM compatibility determined by slot types. ⇐

⇒ Interface - Dual Inline Memory Module [DIMM]: A type of RAM module which have separate electrical contacts, used with DRAM types like DDR series. ⇐

⇒ Interface - Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Module [SO-DIMM]: A compact type of a RAM module which fits ideally for space constrained hardwares. ⇐

EXPANSION SLOTS

⇒ Expansion Slots: The physical slots which hold cards for enhanced sound, extra memory, high-end graphics, network interfaces, etc to a motherboard. ⇐

⇒ Interface - Peripheral Component Interconnect [PCIe]: A newer version of PCI which is a high-speed interface standard using serial communications. ⇐

⇒ Expansion Slots vs. Bus - Function: [Expansion Slots] Where to plug in [Bus] How data travels between hardwares. ⇐

⇒ Expansion Slots vs. Bus - Design: [Expansion Slots] PCIe: Slot [Bus] PCIe Bus: electrical communication channel. ⇐

⇒ Expansion Slots vs. Socket - Function: [Expansion Slots] Connects additional components [Socket] Connects CPU ⇐

Disk Controller

⇒ Disk Controller: A small circuit board with guiding chips which enables CPU to communicate with disk drive; recently integrated inside the disk drive. ⇐

⇒ Integrated Drive Electronics [IDE]: An interface standard for CPU and Hard Drive communication; functions as an interface between HDD and the bus. ⇐

FIRMWARE

⇒ Firmware: A form of microcode or program embedded into hardware devices to help them operate effectively, stored in non-volatile memory, e.g., ROM. ⇐

⇒ Firmware Location: The firmware is stored in ROM, Flash Memory, or EEPROM on the motherboard, retaining its data even when the device power is off. ⇐

⇒ Surface Mount Technology [SMT]: The Surface Mount Devices [SMDs]--electronic components--are mounted directly onto the surface of a motherboard. ⇐

⇒ Serial Peripheral Interface [SPI]: The flash ROM chips are connected to a motherboard via Serial Peripheral Interface, using Surface Mount Technology.. ⇐

⇒ Basic Input/Output System [BIOS]: A low-level firmware that manages I/O exchange; initializes hardware during boot, performs diagnostics, loads OS. ⇐

⇒ Unified Extensible Firmware Interface [UEFI]: A modern replacement of BIOS with a graphical interface, faster boot times, and larger storage support.⇐

CMOS

⇒ Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor [CMOS]: A small memory powered with the coin-cell battery which stores firmware configuration settings. ⇐

⇒ Data Stored in CMOS: The settings which include [i] system time and data [ii] hardware settings [iii] security passwords [iv] CPU or RAM configuration. ⇐

⇒ CMOS Location: The CMOS is stored in a chip next to the Firmware ROM or integrated with the Firmware ROM; CMOS operates under volatile memory. ⇐

INTERNAL HHD

⇒ Hard Disk Drive [HHD]: A non-volatile and long-term data storage which contains a platter, i.e., disk, with magnetic surface where the data is stored. ⇐

⇒ The Speed of Platter Spin: The platter rotates on a spindle, which controls the speed of the platter’s spins. ⇐

⇒ Metalic Head Position #1: A metallic head floats above platter, where it can read and write magnetic data. ⇐

⇒ Metalic Head Position #2: The head is at the end of an actuator arm, positioning a metalic head on platter. ⇐

⇒ Read and Write Data: The spindle, actuator arm, and head are controlled to read and write data on a disk. ⇐

⇒ Data Reaches the Drive Using Combination of: [i] Power Connectors [ii] Data Connectors [iii] Jumpers. ⇐

INTERNAL SSD

⇒ Solid State Drive [SSD]: A non-volatile data storage which uses Flash Memory which is significantly faster and more reliable than other storage types. ⇐

⇒ SSD Speeds and Capacities Performance: [Speeds] 10–12 Gigabits Per Second [Capacities] 120 Gigabytes to 2 Terabytes. ⇐

⇒ Forms of SSD: [i] Internal SSD [ii] External SSD [iii] Solid State Hybrid Drive [SSHD]: Flash Memory integrated in HDD. ⇐

Optical Drives

⇒ Optical Drives: A circular non-volatile data storage device that retrieves and encodes the data through low-power laser beams on the surface of a disc. ⇐

⇒ Compact Disc [CD]: An optical storage primarily used for music and small data files; the format is single-sided; the data capacity is 750 Megabytes.⇐

⇒ Digital Versatile Disc [DVD]: An optical storage for videos, software, and large data files; single or dual-sided; the capacity is 4.7 to 17.1 Gigabytes. ⇐

⇒ Blu-ray Disc: A high-capacity optical storage for storing high-definition and ultra-high-definition content, and large data files; 25 to 128 Gigabytes. ⇐

ATA Interface

⇒ Advanced Technology Attachment [ATA]: A standard interface used for connecting storage devices to a motherboard; replaced with advanced interfaces.⇐

⇒ Integrated Drive Electronics [IDE]: A type of ATA with integrated controllers which makes it easier to install and configure with the 40 pin ribbon cables.⇐

⇒ Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment [PATA]: The original ATA standard before SATA which transfers data in parallel, i.e., multiple bits all at once. ⇐

SATA INTERFACE

⇒ Serial Advanced Technology Attachment [SATA]: A high-speed interface used to connect internal storage device--e.g., HDD or SSD--to the motherboard ⇐

⇒ Key Feature - Serial Transmission: The data is sent through in a single stream which reduces cable size and interference. ⇐

⇒ SATA Characteristics: [Connector # of Pins] 7 on Data Cable; 15 on Power Connector [Speeds] 6.0 Gigabits Per Second. ⇐

SCSI Interface

⇒ Small Computer System Interface [SCSI]: An interface for connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices such as storage. ⇐

⇒ Performance Against Other Interfaces: SCSI supported faster data transfer rates compared to the ATA standards, but was replaced by the SATA interface. ⇐

VIDEO CARD

⇒ Video Card: A chip or expansion card allowing the computer to send graphical information to a video display device such as a monitor, TV, or projector. ⇐

⇒ Video Cards Format: [Expansion Card] The expansion card installed in an empty slot on the motherboard [Chip] A chip can be built into the motherboard. ⇐

⇒ Video Cards Also Called: Display Card, Graphics Card, Display Adapter, Video Adapter, Video Board, Video Controller, Graphics Processing Unit [GPU]. ⇐

GRAPHICS PROCESSING UNIT

⇒ Graphics Processing Unit [GPU]: A specialized processor which can process many pieces of data simultaneously; designed to accelerate graphics rendering. ⇐

⇒ Simultaneous Processing - Parallelism: GPU contains thousands of cores optimized for simultaneous operations, e.g., 3D rendering and scientific computing. ⇐

⇒ GPU Processing Capabilities Use Cases: [i] Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence [ii] Advanced Video Editing [iii] Top-Quality Gaming Applications ⇐

AUDIO CARD

⇒ Audio Card or Sound Card: An integrated circuit which generates audio signals, then transmits those audio signals into and out of the computer speakers. ⇐

⇒ Analog Sound to Digital Audio Signals: Accepts an analog sound, e.g., recording from a microphone or audiotape, then converts sound into the digital data. ⇐

⇒ Digital Audio Signals to Analog Sound: Accept digitized audio signals, e.g., signals from an audio file, then converts signals to analog signals for playback. ⇐

MIDI INTERFACE

⇒ Musical Instrument Digital Interface [MIDI]: An interface which allows devices to communicate by sending MIDI data, e.g., notes, pitch, and velocity.⇐

⇒ MIDI Controller: A hardware device which sends MIDI data to other devices or computers; used to control virtual instruments or software synthesizer. ⇐

⇒  Function: When a key is pressed, it sends a MIDI signal--e.g., play C note at 90 velocity--to a Digital Audio Workstation or synthesizer to generate sound. ⇐

NIC

⇒ Network Interface Card [NIC]: A circuit board installed in a computer providing a dedicated network connection; can not connect to internet without it. ⇐

⇒ Two Types of NICs: [Onboard NIC] NIC which is built into the motherboard [Add-on NIC] NIC which fit into an open expansion slot on the motherboard. ⇐

⇒ Network Communication: NIC receives digital signals and translates those into electrical or radio signals (and vice versa), allowing online access possible. ⇐

WIRED AND WIRELESS NIC

⇒ Wireless NIC: NIC which relies on an antenna to communicate through radio frequency waves on a Wi-Fi connection. ⇐

⇒ Wired NIC: NIC which relies on an input jack and a Wired Local Area Network [LAN] technology, e.g., Fast Ethernet. ⇐

MODEM

⇒ Modulator-Demodulator [Modem]: A hardware device which acts as a translator between Internet Service Providers [ISPs] and the router. ⇐

⇒ Router: A hardware device which delivers the internet connection to the devices at home or office, allowing them to connect through Wi-Fi. ⇐

⇒ Connection Flow: [i] ISP sends ISP signals (analog) via phone line, fiber, coaxial, etc [ii] Modem translates into digital data [iii] Router connect devices to Wi-Fi. ⇐

SYSTEM COOLING

⇒ System Cooling: The methods used to prevent internal computer components from overheating; protect critical parts from damage caused by excessive heat. ⇐

⇒ CPU Coolers: [Components] Include components like fans, radiators, heatsinks, thermal paste [Design] Heat flows away by dissipating heat produced by CPU. ⇐

COOLING METHODS

⇒ Passive Cooling: Relies on slowing operating speed of a component without any mechanical fans or powered elements; used when minimal heat is produced. ⇐

⇒ Active Cooling: Involves powered fans inside the case to draw cool air through front vents and expel warm air through the back; is common and affordable. ⇐

⇒ Forced Convection: Uses a fan to blow air across a heatsink which helps to move hot air away from the CPU quickly; generating fluid motion through a fan. ⇐

⇒ Heat Sink Cooling: A thermal compound is applied between CPU and heatsink and metallic heatsink is placed over CPU; heat is conducted to heatsink fins. ⇐

⇒ Liquid Cooling: Components include water block on top of a chip with circulating liquid; radiator and fans absorb heat of circulating fluid to cool the fluid. ⇐

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT - MEMORY SEMICONDUCTORS [집적회로 - 메모리 반도체]

RAM [MEMORY SUBSET]

⇒ Random-Access Memory [RAM]: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

SRAM [RAM SUBSET]

⇒ Static Random Access Memory [SRAM]: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

DRAM [RAM SUBSET]

⇒ Dynamic Random Access Memory [DRAM]: _________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

SDRAM [DRAM SUBSET]

⇒ Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory [DRAM]: _____________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

DDR SDRAM [SDRAM SUBSET]

⇒ Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory [DRAM]: ______________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

HBM [SDRAM SUBSET]

⇒ High Bandwidth Memory [HBM]: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

ROM [MEMORY SUBSET]

⇒ Read-Only Memory [ROM]: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

EEPROM [ROM SUBSET]

⇒ Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory [EEPROM]: ___________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

FLASH MEMORY [EEPROM SUBSET]

⇒ Flash Memory: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

NAND FLASH [FLASH MEMORY SUBSET]

⇒ NAND Flash Memory [NOT AND Gate]: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

NOR FLASH [FLASH MEMORY SUBSET]

⇒ NAND Flash Memory [NOT OR Gate]: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

⇒ ____________________: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. ⇐

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT - SYSTEM SEMICONDUCTORS, I.E., MICROPROCESSORS [집적회로 - 시스템 반도체]