implies that the moral duty is what really matters. If a researcher, though, acts deontologically he may feel that he has not protected society. Another issue is that the researcher may have to report confidential information to courts which can also cause moral dilemmas. In that cases it can be argued that the moral duty and personal ethos can be stronger than legal requirements.3 Even if there are no duty conflicts, the researcher faces several problems with respect to maintaining confidentiality especially in qualitative research where conduct is personal, the sample is smaller and the reports display quotations of interviews. Ford and Reutter suggest using pseudonyms and distorting identifying details of interviews when transcribing the tapes used.12 In situations that are particularly complex, sensitive, and in which the participants are extremely vulnerable, a Certificate of Confidentiality issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) may be useful to help ensure the privacy of research participants especially in studies in which participants and researchers may be exposed to compelled legal disclosure of research data. The researchers must always bear in mind all psychological and social implications that a breach of confidentiality may have on subjects. In order to protect participants, they have to inform them on their rights, and use all possible coding systems that they regard appropriate in each case. Respect for privacy The fifth principle of the entitled "A Patient's Bill of rights" document published in 1975 by the American Hospital Association (AHA), affirm the patient's right of privacy.21 According to Levine : "privacy is the freedom an individual has to determine the time, extent, and general circumstances under which private information will be shared with or withheld from others ".20 Kelman believes that an invasion of privacy happens when private information such as beliefs, attitudes, opinions and records, is shared with others, without the patients knowledge or consent.22 However, the American Nurses Association says that different persons may held different opinions about when privacy is invaded. A researcher cannot decide on behalf of other persons on HEALTH SCIENCE JOURNAL ® VOLUME 5, ISSUE 1 (2011) What are the Major Ethical Issues in Conducting Research? Is there a Conflict between the Research Ethics and the Nature of Nursing? pp: 3-14 E-ISSN:1791-809X www.hsj.gr Health Science Journal® All Rights Reserved 7 those delicate issues. All aims, instruments and methodology must be discussed with the prospective subject and the research workers prior to the investigation. Treece and Treece suggest that whenever subjects refuse to report personal information as they regard it an invasion of privacy, the researcher ought to respect their views.18 This may even apply to report of age, income, marital status, and other details that the subject may regard intimate. They also imply that privacy can be invaded when researchers study certain groups without their knowledge and without identifying themselves. An example of such a study that the researcher hid his identity, was Humphrie's study "Impersonal Sex in public places" in which, he observed homosexuals during sexual activities in public men's rooms.18 Health care practitioners need to be aware that "an invasion of privacy may cause loss of dignity, friendship or employment, or create feelings of anxiety, guilt, embarrassment or shame".5 In conclusion, all possible measures have to be taken in order to protect subjects from potential physical, psychological or social damage during the research or after circulation of the results.8 Vulnerable groups of people Nowadays, there is an increased concern about vulnerable groups and whether it is ethical or not for them to be used as research subjects." Fisher classifies vulnerability as one characteristic of people unable to protect their own rights and welfare".23 So, vulnerable groups include captive populations (prisoners, institutionalised, students etc), mentally ill persons, aged people, children, critically ill or dying, poor, with learning disabilities, sedated or unconscious. The different opinions about their participation in research can be attributed to their