only after 1940's because of human exploitation in several cases. Professional codes and laws were introduced since then in order to prevent scientific abuses of human lives.4 The Nazi experiments led to the Nuremberg Code (1947) which was the leading code for all subsequent codes made to protect human rights in research. This code focuses on voluntary informed consent, liberty of withdrawal from research, protection from physical and mental harm, or suffering and death. It also emphasises the risk- benefit balance.5 The only weak point of this code was the self regulation of researchers which can be abused in some research studies.4 All declarations followed, forbade nontherapeutic research. It was only in 1964 with the declaration of Helsinki that the need for non therapeutic research was initiated.6 The declaration emphasised the protection of subjects in this kind of research and strongly proclaimed that the well being of individuals is more important than scientific and social interests.4 In terms of Nursing the first inquiry was the "Nightingale Pledge" (1983). Since then there has been a significant development of professional codes in conduct and research. The American Nurses' Association (ANA) Guidelines for Research, the Human Rights Guidelines for nurses in clinical and other research (1985) and the Royal College of Nursing Code for nurses in research (1977) provide a strong assistance to professional nurses as well as reassurance to patients, the public and society, of professionals’ intentions.7-9 Major ethical issues in conducting research Informed consent Informed consent is the major ethical issue in conducting research. According to Armiger: "it means that a person knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently, and in a clear and manifest way, gives his consent" .10 Informed consent is one of the means by which a patient's right to autonomy is protected. Beauchamp and Childress define autonomy as the ability for self determination in action according to a personal plan.11 Informed consent seeks to incorporate the rights of autonomous individuals through self- determination. It also seeks to prevent assaults on the integrity of the patient and protect personal liberty and veracity.3 Of course individuals can make informed decisions in order to E HEALTH SCIENCE JOURNAL ® VOLUME 5, ISSUE 1 (2011) What are the Major Ethical Issues in Conducting Research? Is there a Conflict between the Research Ethics and the Nature of Nursing? pp: 3-14 E-ISSN:1791-809X www.hsj.gr Health Science Journal® All Rights Reserved 5 participate in research voluntarily only if they have information on the possible risks and benefits of the research.12 Free and informed consent needs to incorporate an introduction to the study and its purpose as well as an explanation about the selection of the research subjects and the procedures that will be followed.8 It is essential to describe any physical harm or discomfort, any invasion of privacy and any threat to dignity as well as how the subjects will be compensated in that case.5 In addition the subjects need to know any expected benefits either to the subject or to science by gaining new knowledge.8 A disclosure of alternatives is also required as for example in the Tuskegee study about syphilis. In this study, rural black men were chosen as subjects in a study of syphilis. Although a cure for syphilis was found after the start of the study, it was decided not to treat them and they had not been told that penicillin was effective to their disease.13 The researcher must inform the subjects about the methods which will be used to protect anonymity and confidentiality and indicate a person with whom they can discuss the study. He must also provide a "Noncoersive Disclaimer" which states that participation is voluntary and no penalties are involved in refusal to participate.14 Moreover, the subject must be told that some information has been deliberately withheld in order to avoid altered behaviours. The researcher must also take into account that persons with physical, cultural and emotional barriers may require a very simple language in order to understand him.15 Finally, the freedom to withdraw must be explained.5 This is very important but