Garrison’s Model of Self-Directed Learning is a framework that explains how learners take responsibility for their own learning process (Garrison, 1997). It posits that effective self-directed learning occurs when individuals actively set their own goals, monitor their progress, and sustain the motivation needed to complete tasks. The model is composed of three dimensions: (1) self-management, which involves planning and regulating one’s learning activities, (2) self-monitoring, which refers to reflecting on and evaluating progress, and (3) motivation, which drives persistence and engagement in the learning process.

Schank’s Goal-Based Scenarios is a constructivist learning model that combines the idea of case-based learning with learning by doing. It is based on the assumption that learners develop deeper understanding when they are placed in authentic, goal-oriented situations where they must actively solve problems, make decisions, and reflect on the consequences of their actions (Schank, 1993). 

According to Schank et al. (1999), the goal-based scenario shall be composed of several essential elements. The learning goals, which refer to the target skills or knowledge, either procedural or declarative, that learners are expected to acquire. The mission, which refers to a motivational and realistic objective that learners must pursue. The cover story, which refers to a meaningful and engaging narrative that situates the mission and explains its relevance. The role, which refers to the character adopted by learners whose responsibilities require the use of target skills. The scenario operations, which refer to the concrete tasks and activities learners perform in order to accomplish the mission. The resources, which refer to well-organized and accessible sources of information that support skill acquisition. Finally, feedback, which refers to the guidance provided in the form of coaching, consequences of actions, or shared experiences, delivered just in time to reinforce learning.

Mayer (2009), in the book Multimedia Learning, discussed 12 principles of Multimedia Learning that could serve as a guide in selecting or developing instructional materials.

Five (5) principles are targeted towards the reduction of extraneous processing or extraneous load. This includes the Coherence Principle, which posits that irrelevant materials should be excluded; the Signaling Principle, which recommends highlighting essential material through cues; the Redundancy Principle, which suggests that graphics and narration alone are better than graphics, narration, and on-screen text combined; the Spatial Contiguity Principle, which says that words and pictures related to each other should be placed near to each other; and finally, the Temporal Contiguity Principle, which suggests that the simultaneous presentation of words and visuals enhances learning more than sequential presentation.

Three (3) principles are aimed at managing essential processing or intrinsic load. This includes the Segmenting Principle, which suggests that content should be broken down into segments and that learners should be given the autonomy to pace themselves; the Pre-training Principle, which posits that learner should be introduced to key concepts before engaging with the full lesson; and lastly, the Modality Principle, which recommends presenting words as spoken narration rather than on-screen text especially for videos.

Four (4) principles support the fostering of generative processing or germane load. This includes the Multimedia Principle, which asserts that learning is improved when words are paired with relevant images rather than presented alone; the Personalization Principle, which suggests that words are better presented in conversational style rather than formal style; the Voice Principle, which recommends the use of human voice than a machine or computer voice for narration; and finally, the Image Principle, which suggests that adding a speaker’s image or a talking head does not necessarily improve learning outcomes.

Cognitive Load Theory by John Sweller is grounded in Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model of human information processing, which posits that the human working memory has a limited capacity to process information. With that in mind, instructional materials should be designed to minimize unnecessary cognitive load and present information in a way that optimizes the learner’s processing ability (Sweller, 2011).

Within the theory, three types of cognitive load are identified. First, intrinsic load which refers to the inherent complexity or difficulty of the material itself, which is largely determined by the nature of the content and cannot be changed. Second, extraneous load, which refers to unnecessary or distracting information and elements within the instructional materials that do not support learning and should therefore be minimized. Third, germane load which refers to the mental effort devoted to processing, constructing, and automating schemas, which supports learning and should be encouraged.

Dual Coding Theory, developed by Allan Paivio, is based on the idea that the human mind processes information through two separate channels: verbal and non-verbal (visual). The theory’s main proposition is that learning is better supported when information is presented using both verbal and non-verbal representation, as the capacities of both channels are maximized. It has been shown that it leads to better encoding, retrieval, and understanding, as learners can create multiple mental connections that support memory and comprehension (Paivio & Clark, 1991). Figure 4 shows an illustration of dual coding theory.

The ALMS framework is a well-known framework in the field of open education, introduced by Hilton III et al. (2010). It is used as a guide in evaluating the technical openness of open educational resources (OER), specifically, how easily users can engage in the 5R activities (retain, reuse, revise, remix, and redistribute) that open licenses legally allow. ALMS stands for Access to Editing Tools, Level of Expertise Required, Meaningfully Editable, and Self-Sourced.

Access to Editing Tools refers to whether users can edit the content using free or widely available tools, rather than expensive or proprietary software. Level of Expertise Required refers to the amount of technical skill needed to revise or remix the content. Meaningfully Editable refers to whether the content is provided in a format that allows real editing. Self-Sourced refers to whether the same file used to view the content is also used to edit it.

Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction is a framework for organizing instruction, which suggests that instruction must follow nine (9) sequential steps or events (Kruse, 2008). First is gaining attention, which can be done through the use of icebreakers, fun facts, prompting questions, or scenarios. Second is informing the learner of the objective, which can be done by presenting a benchmark or outlining the learning objectives. Third is stimulating recall of prior learning, which can be done by showing the connection between the new lesson and the prior lesson. Fourth is presenting the content, which involves delivering the actual instructional material, whether through lectures, videos, readings, or demonstrations. Fifth is providing learning guidance, by giving examples, analogies, or strategies to support understanding. Sixth is eliciting performance (practice), in which learners apply what they’ve learned through activities. Seventh is providing feedback, where learners receive specific responses about their performance. Eighth is assessing performance, which may involve traditional assessments like quizzed or non-traditional assessments like projects or portfolio. Lastly, the ninth event is enhancing retention and transfer, which may include review activities.

Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory is a well-known theory on how adults learn. It is composed of five assumptions of adult learners (Malik & Khaliq, 2017). First assumption is related to self-concept; adult learners are self-directed individuals who shall be given the autonomy to take control of their own learning. Second is related to experience; adults have a wealth of experience that should be maximized as a rich source for learning. Third is related to readiness to learn; adults become ready to learn when they see the relevance of the topic to their everyday life. Fourth is related to orientation to learning; adults prefer learning that is problem-centered and applicable to real situations rather than content that is purely theoretical. Fifth is related to motivation; adults are more often driven by internal motivators such as personal growth, satisfaction, or a desire to improve quality of life than external motivators.

Coldeway's Quadrant is a framework developed by Dale Coldeway used to classify different types of educational delivery based on time and place (Simonson et al., 2019). It identifies four (4) types of learning environments. The first type is same time and same place (ST-SP), which refers to traditional classroom settings where students and teachers meet in person at scheduled times. The second type is same time and different place (ST-DP), which involves synchronous distance learning where participants are in separate locations but interact in real time. The third type is different time and same place (DT-SP), such as learning centers where learners use resources on their own schedule but in a shared physical space. The fourth type is different time and different place (DT-DP), which includes asynchronous online learning where students access materials and complete tasks at their own place and time. Figure 5 shows an illustration of Coldeway’s Quadrants.