Contemporary issues in California K-12 schools encompass a range of concerns, including evolving standards and frameworks that guide curriculum development and assessment practices. Inclusion remains a significant focus, striving to create equitable learning environments for all students, particularly those with diverse needs. High-stakes testing continues to be a point of discussion, with debates surrounding its impact on teaching and learning. Bilingual education is gaining prominence, reflecting California's linguistic diversity and the importance of bilingualism. Additionally, social issues such as equity, diversity, and mental health awareness are gaining attention, influencing policies and practices within schools. The push for standardized curriculum aims to ensure consistency and rigor across the state, but it also raises questions about flexibility and individualized learning approaches in the classroom. These multifaceted issues underscore the dynamic landscape of California's K-12 education system, prompting ongoing dialogue and adaptation to address the needs of its diverse student population. 

7.1: Is it still the "three Rs"?

Krista Olah

Learning Objectives

• recognize and understand the concepts of the original R's

• grasp the basic concepts of writing

• understand the differences between phonics and whole language

• decide if a piece of work is plagiarized

Introduction

Back in the 1800's, Sir William Curtis an alderman later dubbed Lord Mayor of London made a toast to the Board of Education(Sir William) about "reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic"(American Heritage). It is unknown if he pronounced the words inaccurately on purpose due to illiteracy or if he was trying to be ironic. Either way, the phrase was found intriguing and used by others. However, there are more subjects in today's schools, more and different jobs that involve technology and other medias than there was in the 1800's, so it's smart to say that the 'Three R's' have changed or expanded from just reading, writing, and arithmetic. Because of this teaching has changed as a whole, instead of focusing on teaching the original 'Three R's' we are now teaching multiple subjects.

Original Three R's

When Sir William Curtis introduced the 'Three R's', it was from then on assumed that reading, writing, and arithmetic would be the basis of education. One had to master these three subjects before he, and sometimes she, could move on in life and be successful. From there he could go into a profession and learn other subjects such as science, history, literature, etc. In modern times we are taught first how to count, recite the alphabet and recognize it. Afterwards, we expand to applying this knowledge into reading literature, studying history, investigating science, and others. From there we choose different electives to study more in depth leading us to our chosen careers.

Students should be able to absorb the 'Three R's' knowledge and use it. Basically being able to recite, recognize, and write letters' then form them into words. Finally, these words can become sentences, paragraphs, papers. Students also need to know how to count and calculate. From there they can solve mathematical problems that can help with medical, scientific, and technological breakthroughs. However there are certain rules and steps they need to follow in order to do these things properly.

Reading

The ongoing debate on how to teach to read is whether to use phonics, pronouncing the word by each syllable, or whole language, emphasizing the use and recognition of words in everyday context (whole language). The debate is whether to stress technique and mastery, phonics, or meaning and context, whole language (Roy). There are three sides to this, those supporting phonics, those in favor of whole language, and some who believe that reading should involve both ideas. "Research evidence also shows that a balanced approach works better for children learning to read" (Early).

"Reading" by be creator is licensed under CC BY 2.0 

Writing

Writing follows precise rules such as grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

Along with the writing rules, there is also a legal rule. Plagiarism, the use of one's words or ideas as your own without crediting them, in education betrays trust in the student and teacher, creates liars and dishonest people. Plagiarism is also theft, if caught you could face charges from failing the paper being arrested, having a record, and paying a fine. However, some may not realize that they are plagiarizing. Here are some tips on how to avoid it, always give credit when (Overview):

"In writing" by matsuyuki is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. 

Fourth R and Beyond

In today's classrooms reading, writing, and arithmetic are still the basis for learning everyday subjects such as math, literature, history and science. However, knowledge in the classroom does not stop there but continues on into saving the environment, forming relationships, and expanding the creative side of your brain. If you were to go out into the world today and ask people what they thought the "Three R's' were you might be told multiple different things such as Relief, Recovery and Reform from the Great Depression; or Revenue, cost Reduction, and Regulations from a businessman (Three Rs). Although, these 'Three R's' do not relate to education another set does and that is reduce, recycle and reuse (Waste Hierarchy).

Reduce, Recycle, Reuse

It may not seem to be a part of education; however, teachers are always trying to teach their students to conserve and be a part of repairing the environment. Some schools, such as Southeastern Elementary in Chesapeake, Virginia, will have each grade level plant at least one tree every year. The students are being taught how to use scissors correctly and are praised when they waste as little paper as necessary. Teachers even come up with art ideas such as using old scraps of paper to form a collage.

Relationship

Teachers today want their students not only to be successful in technology and knowledge, but to be able to go out in the world and form a relationship with friends, family, boss, co-workers, future children, and future husband/wife.

Rhythm

Music is a part of everyday life. People listen to it in their car, at home, in movies, while trying to relax, at concerts, and much more. Music is a stress reliever and helps increase energy. Music cannot be made without rhythm. As a fourth R, Rhythm can also be used to help memorize a poem, or make a story interesting like in the movie "Renaissance Man".

Art

Art, Fine Art, is important because it brings knowledge to your brain, senses, and emotions, basically educating your soul. Art teaches many things such as observing reality, making judgments,understanding the human conditions, expressing values, training the mind, and uniting reason and emotion(Fourth R).

Some educators believe that one or more of the above should be added on to the 'Three R's'.

To Answer the Question

In my opinion, the basics of learning reside in the original "Three R's", however as time goes on we expand our knowledge. Since we are expanding our knowledge there are more lessons being taught. Some of these lessons have SOL's, Standards of Learning tests (state of Virginia)such as a being able to read the amount of liquid in a tube whereas others do not such as Recycle, Reduce and Reuse. Just like in the debate of phonic and whole language, it is the combination of all these things and more that make up education.

Reference List

Importance of Math Education. (2008, ). Retrieved September 21, 2008,

Harris, Kevin, . Collected Quotes from Albert Einstein. (1995, ). Retrieved September 21, 2008,

Learn to Read at Starfall. (2007). Retrieved September 28, 2008, from http://www.starfall.com/

NIEHS Kids Page—Recycling. Retrieved September 28, 2008, from http://kids.niehs.nih.gov/recycle.htm

Overview: How to Recognize Plagiarism; Indiana University Bloomington School of Education. (2005, June 21). Retrieved September 21, 2008, f

Roy, Kaustuv, . (2005). On Sense and Nonsense: Looking Beyond. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 39. Retrieved September 21, 2008,

Sir William Curtis 17 (2008, January 19). Retrieved September 21, 2008, from http://web.archive.org/web/20070429140050/http://members.cox.net/ggthomp/williamcurtis1752.html

The Fourth "R" in Education: Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Art. (1998, ). Retrieved September 21, 2008,

(Ed.) (1997). Three R's. In The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms (Vol. Third, pp. 656). : Houghton Mifflin Reference Books. :Retrieved September 21, 2008,

(Ed.)Three R's. In Wikipedia (Vol. , pp. )Retrieved September 21, 2008, from http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Rs

(Ed.)Waste Hierarchy. In Wikipedia (Vol. , pp. )Retrieved September 21, 2008, from http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchy

whole language. (n.d.). The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved October 5, 2008,

Xue, Yange, . (2004). Early Literacy Instruction and Learning. American Educational Research Journal, 41. Retrieved September 21, 2008,

This page titled 7.1: Is it still the "three Rs"? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 8.1: Is it still the "three Rs"? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

7.2: Is there a "hidden curriculum"? Where is it hiding?

Table of contents

by Aubrey W. Bibbs, Jr.

Learning Objectives

1. Reader should be able to recognize various types of hidden curriculum/character education.

2. Reader will be able to identify reasons for implementing a hidden curriculum/character education into an existing curriculum.

3. Readers are expected to distinguish the differences between the goals associated with hidden curriculum/character education from those of a traditional/formal curriculum

Introduction

The Random House College Dictionary (1988) defines curriculum as: “the aggregate of courses of study given in a school, college, etc” (p. 328). The term “hidden curriculum” comes from the concept that such an aggregate of courses is comprised of a curriculum which is both formal and informal, also known as written or directed curriculum and unwritten or undirected curriculum respectively. Formal curriculum is traditionally an explicit lesson plan, either produced by the individual teacher or created by the school/school district intended to address intellect and/or vocation, and teach lessons in areas of study such as: mathematics, science, reading, writing and art. Informal curriculum, commonly referred to as hidden curriculum, due to its implicit nature, addresses behavioral and character aspects of life which include, but are not limited to: social responsibility, personal relationships, competition, respect for authority and time management. These aspects are taught by such methods, techniques and procedures as class bells, restroom passes, dress codes, classroom etiquette, class rank charts, etc.

The general consensus is that hidden curriculum has the potential to teach, stimulate and foster good or bad lessons, behavioral pattern and character traits respectively. Some educators feel that hidden curriculum is creating more negative repercussions for students and society, than it is positive results. John Taylor Gatto (1992) expressed his concern during a speech by stating, “…these are the things you pay me to teach. 1. CONFUSION…2. CLASS POSITION…3. INDIFFERENCE…4. EMOTIONAL DEPENDENCY…5. INTELLECTUAL DEPENDENCY…6. PROVISIONAL SELF-ESTEEM…7. ONE CAN’T HIDE…” (p. 2-12). His main argument was that hidden curriculum was “dumbing us down” (Gatto). This was a popular sentiment echoed throughout school systems and communities in the U.S. over the past thirty to forty years.

"High School Negotiation Program" by U.S. Embassy Jerusalem is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. 

Teaching Character

Recently, in the past ten to fifteen years, there has been a collective effort by parents, educators and politicians alike for schools to look into placing more focus on areas of hidden curriculum such as, character education; also referred to as value education or moral education intended to help students “to acquire certain character strengths: sound judgment, a sense of responsibility, personal courage, and self-mastery” (Ryan & Bohlin, 1999, p. 207), and realize both the individual benefit and the benefit to the greater good of society when they “internalize these lifelong habits” (p. 207). This movement was brought on by obvious indications that our nation's youth was lacking sufficient moral fiber as demonstrated through “frightening statistics about youth homicides and suicides and by soaring numbers of teen pregnancies“ (p. xiii), staggering high school drop out rates and gang affiliation. As a result of the movement to create formal programs which propagate positive outcomes by focusing on the potential that hidden curriculum has to influence character development, the term “hidden curriculum” has become synonymous with character education. Another point presented by advocates for character education is that a value/moral driven curriculum was deemed a necessity by our nation’s founding fathers, such a Thomas Jefferson, who believed that formally teaching virtue early on was integral to the ultimate success of our nation and its established structure (Lickona, 1991).

Note

“To educate a person in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society” (Lickona, 1991, p. 3).

Criticism

One would be hard pressed to find a teaching philosophy, idea or technique that was introduced without some form of criticism, skepticism or opposition. So, despite concerns from educators in regards to the countless challenges that students face beyond the scope of academics, an air of skepticism still lingers among many. Taking into consideration the enormous pressures placed on educators to create and implement lesson plans in accordance with No Child Left Behind legislation, consequently forcing many teachers to make drastic adjustments to their preexisting curricula and teaching styles; many educators find it unfeasible to introduce and implement a character driven curriculum while simultaneously maintaining a traditional academic driven curriculum (Allred, 2008, November). Another source of pessimism stem from claims that character education “amounts to imposing particular values or personality traits on young people or crude manipulations of children by dominant powers in their lives” (Ryan & Bohlin, 1999, p. 140). Simply put, some educators feel that character education is nothing short of “brainwashing” (Ryan & Bohlin, p. 140) children. Aside from fear of a decline in academic standing, failing to meet academic benchmarks or indoctrination, educators are open to and optimistic about employing a curriculum that encompasses both academic advancement and character development.

Character Education Programs

There are dozens of character education programs in practice today, making it unfeasible to discuss each one individually. Instead, an overview of some of the key overlapping points from the numerous character education programs currently in use is a more practical approach. Most programs adopt a curriculum centered on a structure that promotes a synergy among the individual student, community and society. Essentially, these programs expect to teach students to make positive decisions not just for self benefit, but for the well being of others. Due to the nature of such programs and their goals, they are often divided into components or levels. Some programs consist of more components than others (components within components), but essentially share three similar components: the school, the family and the community. Additionally, these programs rely heavily on a philosophy that encourages students to use a three division cycle of self-reflection in order to develop good character habits. This cycle is comprised of a continuum of moral knowing/thoughts/thought, moral feeling/feelings/emotion, moral actions/actions/response. Supplemental lessons/techniques common to character education programs include: leading by example, moral literature, storytelling, and cooperative learning to name a few.

Positive Action, a character education program which has been widely used in the state of California for over five years is an example of a program that has successfully incorporated a synergistic structure in its lesson format combined with a self-reflecting philosophy in efforts to build good character traits and behavior while maintaining, and in many cases improving academic standards. In fact, “it was recognized as the only program in the nation to simultaneously improve academics and behavior in character education” (Allred, 2008, November, p. 27) by the U.S. Department of Education What Works Clearinghouse.

Note

“Only a virtuous people are capable of freedom. As nations become corrupt and vicious, they have more need of a master…Nothing is of more importance for the public weal, than to form and train up youth in wisdom and virtue" (Ryan & Bohlin, 1999, p. 220).

Conclusion

Hidden curriculum, more specifically, character education has been revered by many as an essential educational element since the birth of our nation and the development of our nation's educational system. Despite mild criticism, character education has an abundance of benefits on an individual, communal and societal level having both immediate and long term pay outs. Additionally, taking inventory of the moral issues associated with our nation’s teenage demographic couple with evidence that character education has the ability to simultaneously instill strong morals and values, creating good character and improve academic performance is proof positive that there is an ever present need for a curriculum that incorporates character education into traditional academic driven education.

References

Allred, C.G. (2008, November). Improving academics, behavior and character. Leadership, 38(2), 26-29. Retrieved December 12, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.

Gatto, J.T. (1992). Dumbing us down. Philadelphia: New Society.

Hagee, A. (2003). Educating the heart. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press.

Licona, T. (1991). Educationg for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility. New York: Bantam Books.

Ryan, K., Bohlin, K.E. (1999). Building character in schools: Practical ways to bring moral instruction to life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ryan, K., Bohlin, K.E. (1999). Preface. Building character in schools: Practical ways to bring moral instruction to life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ryan, K., Bohlin, K.E. (1999). Appendix. Building character in schools: Practical ways to bring moral instruction to life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Stein, J., Hauck, L.C., SU, P.Y. (Eds.). (1988). Curriculum. The Random House college dictionary(Revised ed.). New York: Random House.

This page titled 7.2: Is there a "hidden curriculum"? Where is it hiding? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 8.2: Is there a "hidden curriculum"? Where is it hiding? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

7.3: Who decides what is taught?

"Good schools, like good societies and good families, celebrate and cherish diversity." —Deborah Meier

"Thinking" by ores2k is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. 

Food For Thought

A school’s core curriculum should not be shaped without forethought. What do our students need to know today? What will they need to know tomorrow? What about their unique and individual lives determines what they need to know? Finally, wrapping all of these issues into the question at hand, who decides what is taught?

• Consider the following questions, and develop your own opinion.

Must a student’s socioeconomic-driven factors and personal needs be considered in order to form a proper educational plan? Must each of us learn the same content nationwide in order to reach a proper level of education?

Local, or National?

Throughout the history of American education, a student’s need for the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic has been obvious and a concentration of the accepted curriculum. But, our national curriculum was not always nationally shaped. In the past, before America's school system operated under national oversight, teachers traveled from town to town and worked on a freelance basis for a few weeks. Without oversight, the teacher taught as he/she saw fit.

Modern strides in science have made staples of classes focused on branches of biology, computer science and advanced mathematics, especially for students thinking of attending a university and going into fields requiring further academically-advanced skill sets. Elective studies, often geared towards the arts, have a tendency to receive funding based on availability, rather than out of necessity. "Funding for the visual arts, music, theater and dance are losing ground across the country due to a ballooning deficit and legislation that caters to standardized testing...Compliance with the No Child Left Behind Act, which makes teaching to standardized testing regulatory, is being cited by some in the education field as the main reason why arts funding is on the chopping block as the first sacrifice to be made (Harbaugh)." So, we recognize nationally that there are basic classes needing to be taught, and that others are not always necessary in order to lead a successful life. These cut classes have been classified as optional when funding runs low, and when well-intentioned acts, such as No Child Left Behind, place emphasis on instilling the fundamentals of modern education. In turn, national philosophies are not able to always satisfy local and personal needs, therefore curriculum should be drafted with some insight.

One study determined that nationally-controlled educational systems have teachers who are “more likely to teach the same mathematics curriculum as teachers in educational systems with local control (Stevenson/Baker, 1)." This, as we’ve examined, means that we seem to have a national understanding regarding the importance of core education. The study goes on to show a disparity, stating that, “when the control of curricular issues is at the national level, the amount of the mathematics curriculum that is taught is generally not related to the characteristics of the teachers of the students, whereas in educational systems with local control, it is related to teachers’ and students’ characteristics (Stevenson/Baker, 1)." Locally controlled bodies draft culturally-influenced curricula, while still teaching alongside national regulations. This is an important factor when considering the amount of authority that should be placed on national boards, versus local decision making boards.

Is it better to have a broad-reaching math (or any other field of study) education plan, or is it better to have a plan geared towards the needs of particular communities and states? A state that makes much of its money off of nuclear engineering, or the manufacturing of battleships, could require a workforce with higher math skills than a part of the country graduating future farmers.

That said, Even if higher levels of math (as an example) weren’t required in all states, or areas of a state, every level of math education should still be made available to any student desiring the content. This can be provided through distance-education means, like internet broadcasts. A national board may not have the foresight to dedicate particular classes to areas of the country with varying educational needs, and certain districts may simply not have the funds to hire teachers for less-than-popular class choices; today’s ever-cheaper communication advances can help fill in any gaps.

Who determines content?

Who decides what is taught? "In the U.S., each state, with the individual school districts, establishes the curricula taught. Each state, however, builds its curriculum with great participation of national academic subject groups selected by the United States Department of Education (Wikipedia)." It’s a team effort, but the debate involves determining which body should have the heaviest hand in the final decision making process, regarding what should be offered.

In one experiment of ways to govern a school system (the Denver Curriculum Program), teachers were given the duty of helping to recreate the school system’s curriculum. The outcome was that “Teacher participation resulted in a teaching staff increasingly alert to its problems. The program of curriculum revision had stimulated and motivated professional study and had been most effective in creating the desire for the assistance of constructive supervision. Teacher participation had also resulted in the emergence of leadership. It placed a premium on the initiative of the individual teacher (Peltier, 215)." Teachers were able to step up and take the reigns of their schools. This might not be possible everywhere, depending on the collective ambitions of individual teaching staffs, but here is an example of how local decision making works, and can benefit an area. As a bonus, the teachers' involvement boosted the confidence of the local school structure in its own capabilities.

Another part of the debate should mention the creation of textbooks. Regardless of the decisions as to what is taught, and where, eventually the curriculum will revolve around the content that is held in textbooks. Textbooks are not written by high-school teachers, for high-school teachers. Textbooks are penned by “college professors, many of whom have never spent a day as a teacher in the schools for which they are attempting to write texts (Borgeson, 181)." This isn’t to say that college professors should not be writing the textbooks, since many high-school teachers likely don’t have adequate training to complete the process of creating a textbook. This issue is simply brought up to point out a gap between those who decide what content is available, and those actually teaching and learning in a live classroom setting. It wouldn’t be possible for each school district to write its own text books, but that doesn’t nullify the disparity.

"Tony showing of his work on content for the school server" by Christoph Derndorfer is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. 

School: a Social Evolution Context

The American educational system continuously evolves, and is composed of variously influenced tentacles. Historically, as the leading groups within society adapted the curriculum to meet their group-related needs, “similar social groups continued to benefit and, likewise, other social groups were disadvantaged (Goodson, 74)." Only by adapting naturally-evolving curricular needs, based upon what is right for societal and local needs, will America’s system of education benefit the many and help the needy rise to individual potential. With the world evolving in so many ways, so must education. The economy of America is changing everyday. The international trade market affects the country in many ways. Trade is very important to the growth of the country, representing 25 percent of the country’s gross domestic product. (Source)Trade in services once was a large export but for the past seven years service imports have grown faster then service exports (source). Most industries face international competition causing for companies to look for the lowest-cost work they can work to cut cost. With all these things going on in the economy in America, the government must take a look into evolving educations. For most students and schools this means that high school is not the end of education like it was over 30 years ago. Times are changing and thirty years ago you could get a job without any education after high school. With the job competition on the rise it will be more important for students to go to college in turn changing the outlook on high school across the nation. So what high school students were doing 30 years ago, will that be good for the economy? Should it stay the same?

This is possible on a national level, on a local level, or through a combination of both. Which would you prefer? Who should decide what is taught, to whom?

Independence in thought - COMMENTARY

Schools are created for society, by selected members of society. The simple fact that the decision making bodies are “selected” is reason enough to require that their decisions are grounded in objectivity, while allowing for classes relevant to particular areas of the country with unique needs. Hopefully those in the position of decision makers are world wise and understanding that cultures can change so much from one area of a city and state to the next.

It comes to light that curricula should not be set in stone. As culture and society changes, changes in curricula are necessary. America may be a unified jigsaw, but each citizen doesn’t necessarily need, or want, to learn the same as every other. Students should certainly receive and learn non-optional core material, but students nationwide will not benefit by learning through an educational plan drafted entirely as though all people are exactly the same, everywhere. We are all people, true enough, but it's known that culture plays a powerful role in shaping what people value, and don't, in education. We should allow for cultural and personal variation as much as we can afford to, while continuing to reinforce universal education needs.

It seems an obvious step that each district should be self-motivated and granted the right to determine its own curriculum, at least in part. How can a man in a California computer-science funded locality determine what is best learned by a man in a West Virginian mining community? The answer is that he really can’t. He may be able to set a theoretical basis for what all people need know, but he’ll never be able to properly dictate what is entirely appropriate for outliers determined by cultural and socioeconomic variation. We may share a larger national border, but we shouldn’t expect that a national educational edict be followed, unless it also considers personal and local-based social requirements.

Note

"The fact that an opinion has been widely held is no evidence that it is not utterly absurd." —Bertrand Russell

ESSAY TOPIC: Working from your readings and personal experiences, write a short essay explaining how you think curricula should be drafted. Should national boards draft a country-wide curriculum that is based on nationally-accepted norms considering the content students are taught, or should local education bodies have the option of drafting culture-specific curricula, operating in conjunction with core subjects?

WORKS CITED:

Borgeson, F C. "School Curriculum and Contemporary Life." Journal of Educational Psychology 3 (1929): 181-185. JSTOR.

Goodson, Ivor F. "On Curriculum Form: Notes Toward a Theory of Curriculum." Sociology of Education 65 (1992): 66-75. JSTOR.

Harbaugh, Steven. "High Schools Face Major Arts Funding Cuts." KentNewsNet. 1 Jan. 2005. <media.www.kentnewsnet.com/media/storage/paper867/news/2005/02/01/News/High-Schools.Face. Major.Arts.Funding.Cuts-1515708.shtml>.

Lewis, Anne C. (2005, May)."High School and Changing Economy". Tech Directions (64),10-15, Retrieved April 18, 2008, From Education Full Text database

Peltier, Gary L. "State Control of the Curriculum and Classroom Instruction." History of Education Quarterly 7 (1967): 209-219. JSTOR.

Stevenson, David L., and David P. Baker. "State Control of the Curriculum and Classroom Instruction." Sociology of Education 64 (1991), 1-10. JSTOR.

Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia <http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Curricula>.

This page titled 7.3: Who decides what is taught? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 8.3: Who decides what is taught? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

7.4: Are we moving toward a national curriculum?

by Ken Gauss

National standards play a critical role in today’s educational community. These standards shape what is taught to students, and more importantly, how teachers teach. National standards have a profound impact not just on the regular education classroom, but also the advanced programs including Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate.

National Standards

In education, there has always been a debate over what to teach our students. In addition, it is important to remember that how something is taught is as valuable as what is being taught. The top programs in today’s American school system are the Advanced Placement program and the International Baccalaureate program. When creating national standards, these programs must be held in high regard. The brightest students along with the best teachers participate in these programs. National standards should be developed that can challenge not only students but teachers as well.

Chromatic type workshop students hard at work designing their multi-color letters" by Nick Sherman is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. 

International Baccalaureate

The International Baccalaureate Organization states that educational standards are a key part in the development of sound students and teachers (IBO.org). The IB student completes a rigorous program and is challenged on a daily basis. While the students work their way through the program they are forced to meet objectives. Within the IB program, students reach above and beyond what is typically expected of them. IB students must understand how the learning system is not compiled of separate parts, but is the sum of all parts together. National standards can unify students and objectives together as one.

“The International Baccalaureate Theory of Knowledge program provides students a complete view of education” (High Performance). Students have the chance to examine each area of education. Students begin to realize that while learning is different for each area, the basic methods used are the same. In this way students are pushed to understand how each content area interacts. Within each way of knowing is an intermittent part of the others. Each area in and of itself directly affects the others. Once students understand the standards they achieve a better understanding of their learning experience. These standards which can be transferred directly to the national system enhance the learning experience. In this portion of the program students begin to breakdown the walls that divide learning, and view the educational instrument as a whole. Through this portion of the International Baccalaureate program, students understand that each standard directly affects the others.

Advanced Placement

Advanced Placement program also provides students with an opportunity to challenge themselves at a higher level. In the Advanced Placement program students are given college level work, and upon completion, they are given the chance to receive college credit for their efforts. Since these advanced students are learning on a college level they are exposed to college-level material. Being that national standards must push the envelope in the world of education, it is pivotal for advanced placement to play a role in the creation of these standards. As students study in the AP program, they are constantly forced to look outside the box, and approach problems full circle. This skill proves to be vital in the forming of any type of national standard. If they are allowed to only approach problems from the most obvious viewpoint they are denied the experience of seeing problems through. Also they do not gain the chance to observe these from different angles, and achieve solutions which shy away from the norm. More often than not educational problems can’t be solved with the most obvious solution. By taking the Advanced Placement outlook students see problems in different way, and thus find more complete solutions.

Standards are a vital part of education. In every educational community standards can vary, and students are taught differently. This leads to varying educational levels across the country. In recognizing this problem, it is easily understood that national standards need to be established in order to form a more complete educational plan. With both the International Baccalaureate and Advanced Placement programs, students are challenged to bring out their fullest potential. With this in mind, we can see that national standards should be shaped around these programs. Not all students are capable of performing in advanced programs, but all students should be challenged to their maximum potentials. When standards are made that require students to reach inside themselves, the ultimate result is students that are better than before. These standards create students who not only solve problems, but understand the issues surrounding the problems.

Conclusion

In the creation of national standards, teachers and students must understand that these advanced programs provide an excellent base to build an educational program. Students who are taught within these standards develop as complete packages in the world’s eye. Teachers who teach with these standards not only better students, but better themselves. In teaching on a higher level, teachers inspire students and provide a much needed advancement in the national educational standard. Students pushed to be better themselves ultimately become people who push for a better tomorrow. In establishing a national standard largely influenced by advanced programs there can only be an improvement in education as a whole. With teachers and students constantly pushed to better themselves the entire nation will improve.

Note

"It is better to solve one problems five ways than five problems one way" - George Polya

References

Agnes, Michael (1999). Webster’s New World College Dictionary (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Kelley, Linda Molner (2004). Why Induction Matters. Journal of Teacher Education 55 (5), 438-559. Retrieved on February 10, 2007 from Education: A SAGE Full-Text Database

"NH Partnership for High Performance Schools." 2005. The Jordan Institute. 1 Feb. 2007 <http://www.nhphps.org/>.

"A High Performance School." Oregon DOE. 1 Feb. 2007 <http://www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/CONS/school/highperform.shtml>.

International Baccalaureate Organization www.ibo.org.

This page titled 7.4: Are we moving toward a national curriculum? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 8.4: Are we moving toward a national curriculum? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

7.5: How can we prepare all students for life after high school?

By: Cassaundra Lewis

I. Introduction

Every year thousands of students graduate from high school and go on to college. Every year hundreds are not as successful. What can be done to assure that more high school students go on to college? What can we do to prepare students for life after high school? The United States has been debating these questions not only on state levels, but national as well. In this article I will discuss some of the benefits, hindrances, advances, and the content of vocational education and college preparation courses.

II. College Prep vs. Vocational Education

First we should define college preparation and vocational education. College preparation is a course or series of courses that help students adjust to many college-level requirements. William Tierney writes, “Important objectives of most programs are the smoothing of the transition from school to college, improvement of study habits, increase of general academic readiness, and expansion of academic options” (Increasing Access to College, 2002, pg 3). Vocational education is a course or series of courses that give students work related experience to express the nature of careers and help them learn skills that will assist towards careers in the future. According to Unger, “the basic purpose of vocational education is to get a job” (But What If…, 2006, pg 33). “In no other area has greater emphasis been placed upon the development of curricula that are relevant in terms of student and community needs and substantive outcomes.” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 3).

Note

Did You Know…?

Did you know…

Education for work began 4,000 years ago? According to Finch, “(the) earliest type of vocational education took the form of apprenticeship” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 4).

III. Main Targets of College Prep and Vocational Education

One of the main targets of college preparation courses are low-income students and minorities, who make up a very small percentage of students attending both two and four year colleges directly after high school (Preparing for College, 2005, pg 3). “Educational institutions, state and federal governments, and local communities have committed significant resources to the development of a wide array of outreach activities designed to identify and assist underrepresented students in their pathways to college” (Preparing for College, 2005, pg 1). Vocational education targets those who are even less likely to attend college immediately after high school. “Millions of students all over the world are not suited for and have no interest in traditional academic schooling—which is why alternative career education was developed: to teach students the skills they need to get a good job” (But What If…, 2006, pg 4). Both college prep and vocational education attempt to enlighten students about career choices and assist them with the transition from high school into the adult world.

IV. Positives and Negatives in College Preparation

According to Anne Lewis, of the Education Digest, “more students are taking upper-level math and science classes and more are enrolled in Advanced Placement classes” (College Prep, 2004, paragraph 1). By this, she means that more students are enrolled in classes to help them prepare for college. She goes on to state, unfortunately, “the likelihood of ninth-graders completing high school and enrolling in college by age 19 (…, having graduated from high school within four years and directly entered a higher education institution) has declined”(paragraph 2). Another major negative in college preparation is that the population targeted is not always the one assisted. Tierney writes, “Programs such as MESA, Upward Bound, AVID, (etc.)… are well intentioned, (but) minority students remain underrepresented on college campuses”(Preparing for College, 2005, pg 1).

Note

Did You Know…?

Did you know…

The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education grades each state, on a scale of A to F, on ability to effectively prepare students for college? Seven states received an “A,” Connecticut, Colorado, Massachusetts (who scored the highest), Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Utah. Louisiana and New Mexico were the only states to receive a “F”(College Prep, 2004, paragraph 7).

V. Positives and Negatives in Vocational Education

There are many benefits of vocational education. According to Unger, “Employers generally respect the credentials of graduates from vo-tech schools, which usually have strong job placement services and close ties with employers. Vo-tech students emerge stronger in academics as well, because students learn English, math, science, and other subjects in conjunction with their vocational education and, therefore, find these areas more interesting”(But What If…?, 2006, pg 20). Two negatives associated with vocational education are that, “Unfortunately, there are only about 325 vo-tech schools across the United States” and there is a rising inability to keep students interested (But What If…?, 2006, pg 20).

Note

Did You Know…?

Did you know…

“It’s easy to get into college, but not easy to finish and graduate? More than 40% of students who enroll in American colleges and universities quit without graduating” (But What If…, 2006, pg 3).

VI. Curriculum Content

What all is included in the curriculum for college preparation and vocational education? What factors help in considering whether or not a program should be added or subtracted? “Curriculum materials are resources that, if used properly, can assist an instructor in bringing about an intended desirable behavior change in individual students” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 208). Unfortunately, there is no fool proof way of being able to tell what is going to help and what isn’t. There are many things to take into consideration when choosing what programs to keep and eliminate (Increasing Access to College, 2002, pg 3). As far as college preparation is concerned, a lot of the learning occurs in advanced classes. Many different approaches are used, such as computer-based assessment and writing assessment. With vocational education, you must determine: What will the student want to study? What does the community need as far as work experience? What will motivate the students toward life after high school (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 92)?

VII. My Personal Experience with College Preparation and Vocational Education

While I was in high school, I was fortunate enough to experience both college preparation and vocational education. In my opinion, college preparation did very much to help me familiarize myself with what college would actually be like. I attended all honors classes and college preparation meetings. During my time as a vocational education student, I had hands on job training and was able to get my license as a cosmetologist when I graduated from high school. Vocational education did just as much for me on an overall level as college preparation. I do understand that not everyone was as fortunate as I and may not have had the same type of support that I received. One contributing factor, that is very often overlooked, is the influence of home life on attending college directly after high school.

VIII. Conclusion

In conclusion, college preparation courses and vocational education courses are both designed to promote success in the community but use different avenues. College preparation is focused on getting students to college. Vocational education is focused on providing an alternative to a college education for those who might not be as interested capable. When used properly and effectively, these means of education can provide options after high school for all students.

IX. Resources

Law, C. J. (1994). Tech Prep Education: A Total Quality Approach. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company.

Finch, C. R., Crunkilton, J. R. (1999). Curriculum Development in Vocational and Technical Education: Planning, Content, and Implementation (5th ed.). Boston: Viacom Company.

Walter, D. M. (1992). Tech Prep: Challenges and Opportunities For Community Colleges. Southern Association of Community, Junior, and Technical Colleges (SACJTC) Occasional Paper, 10, 3-8.

Lewis, A. C. (2004). College Prep. The Education Digest, 70, 69-70.

Tierney, W. G., Corwin, Z. B., and Colyar, J. E. (2005). Preparing for College: Nine Elements of Effective Outreach. New York: State University of New York Press.

Tierney, W. G., Hagedorn, L. S. (2002). Increasing Access to College: Extending Possibilities for All Students. New York: State University of New York Press.

Unger, H. G. (2006). But What If I Don’t Want to Go to College? New York: Checkmark Books.

This page titled 7.5: How can we prepare all students for life after high school? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

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7.6: What are the effects of standardized testing on school curricula?

by Angela Marcotte

Learning Objectives

• distinguish between benefits and downfalls of standardized testing

• know how standardized tests are utilized

• determine who is being held accountable by standardized testing

"Standardized Test Close-Up" by biologycorner is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0. 

Introduction

Testing students has been around since the time of Socrates. For instance, in order to better guide a student in his or her learning, the teacher would ask students questions to measure what has been absorbed from his teachings. Since the first World War, standardized tests have been used to "sort, track and stratify individuals and groups... for employment, higher education and the professions." (Scherer, 2005). More recently, as an admission requirement for colleges and universities, the SAT and ACT standardized tests are claimed to be useful tools in determining college readiness (Giuliano, 2006, 80).

Within the past decade, state and national governments have made annual administration of standardized testing mandatory. The original goal of standardized testing was to help administrators and government officials determine if progress was being made in the education of our youth.

The View of the Supporters

Some believe there are pros to standardized testing. Because many standardized tests consist of true-false or multiple choice questions, the scoring can be done expediently and rather inexpensively. Many of the exams given to students today are scored by computers rather than by people (K12 Academics). Scantron sheets are fed into a machine and read, grading papers in a reasonable time period. Computers can grade multiple tests with minimal errors. It would likely take a teacher longer to grade exams by hand, with an opportunity for errors and bias. Rather than measuring the students' mastery of the subject, a teacher may take into account his or her personal feelings of the student when grading an essay or free writing. Another example would be human error. If the person grading the exam is distracted, he or she may mark something incorrectly.

Many supporters believe standardized assessments are the best way to guarantee high principles of learning and accountability. It is believed that the tests convey what is expected of students and education professionals. Exams measure levels of progress and where it is being made. The reasoning behind accountability is that educators should be making progress and the improvements should be apparent in the results of the students’ exams(Giuliano, 2006).

The View of the Opposition

Opponents to standardized testing feel that a single test is not an accurate assessment of performance. Some argue that because of the pressure put on accountability testing, children are denied access to a more challenging, diverse curriculum. Others believe that rather than using a more sophisticated thought process, which may call for more of an explanation, students are given test questions that are based on rote memorization. While this form of testing will evaluate knowledge, it does not evaluate how and why the students came to their conclusion.(Popham, 2004).

According to Alfie Kohn, author of The Case Against Standardized Testing, the content and format of instruction are affected by standardized testing in that what is tested becomes the focus or curriculum for the school year. Furthermore, Kohn explains that many people feel that standardized testing has caused a “dumbing” down on the American education system (Kohn, 2000, p29).

Due to the pressure put on teachers for their students to succeed, many educators do not spend time on curriculum that is not going to be covered on the standardized tests. A teacher may instead fixate on the test rather than focusing on the meaningful learning of the tested material. If the students do poorly on the exams, it affects the amount of school funding provided by the government, in addition to affecting the employment of many qualified teachers. (Popham, 2004, p. 167-168)

Note

"If instruction focuses on the test, students have few opportunities to display the attributes of higher-order thinking such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and creativity, which are needed for success in school, college and life." (Neill, 2006).

Note

"While state accountability tests are important, they do not give a full picture of student learning... there are usually some important educational goals that aren't easily assessed in a large-scale, standardized way" (Jay McTighe, in an interview by Judith Richardson, 2009).

In Summary

There are many conflicting views regarding the validity and necessity of standardized testing. While there is a serious need to measure the progress and capabilities of a school, its teachers, and its students, there are more opportunities available than one year-end test.

Author's Comments

As a parent and future educator, I have mixed feelings regarding standardized assessments. I believe that all schools, teachers, and students must be evaluated to ensure that proper instruction and an understanding of material is being put forth. However, I feel that one test should not be the final judgment. I am more concerned with the importance placed on a single group of tests than I am with standardized testing in general. There are many options for evaluation and many different factors that affect the way students test.

References

Giuliano, G. (2006). Education: meeting America's needs? Detroit:Thomson Gale.

K12 academics: Standardized testing. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://www.k12academics.com/standardized_testing.htm

Kohn, A. (2000). The case against standardized testing: Raising scores, ruining the schools. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Neill, M. (2006, March/April). The case against high-stakes testing. Principal 85. (4) 28-32.

Popham, W.J.(2004). The no win accountability game. Letters to the next president: What we can do about the real crisis in public education. Ed. Carl Glickman New York: Teachers College Press. 166-173.

Richardson, J.(2009, February). Evidence of learning: A conversation with Jay McTighe. The Education Digest 74 (6). 37-42.

Sacks, P. (1999). Standardized minds: The high price of America's testing culture and what we can do to change it. Cambridge, MA:Perseus Books.

Scherer, M. (2005, November). Reclaiming testing. Educational Leadership 63 (3).9-9. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from Education Research Complete database.

This page titled 7.6: What are the effects of standardized testing on school curricula? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 8.6: What are the effects of standardized testing on school curricula? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

In this chapter, students embark on a comprehensive exploration of curriculum development and educational foundations. By its conclusion, they attain a multifaceted understanding of the fundamental aspects that shape modern education. 

• Beginning with the mastery of the Three Rs - Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic - students recognize these skills as foundational, essential building blocks for academic and lifelong success. 

• The chapter then delves into the concept of the hidden curriculum, urging students to critically examine implicit lessons and values conveyed through educational settings. Analyzing the intricate landscape of curriculum decision-making, students explore the roles of various stakeholders in determining what is taught in schools, while gaining insight into the idea of a national curriculum and its implications. Equipped with strategies for preparing students for life beyond high school, students learn to design curricula that impart practical life skills and facilitate transitions to higher education, careers, and civic engagement. 

• The chapter culminates by equipping students with the skills needed to design effective and culturally responsive school curricula that align with educational goals and cater to the diverse needs of students, providing them with a comprehensive foundation in curriculum development and educational foundations, empowering them to navigate the complex educational landscape with insight and expertise. 

1. How can educators strike a balance between ensuring students master the foundational skills of the Three Rs (Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic) and incorporating innovative and personalized teaching methods that cater to diverse learning styles? Share your thoughts on effective strategies for achieving this balance.

2. The hidden curriculum often conveys implicit lessons and values in educational settings. Can you provide examples from your own educational experiences where you encountered elements of the hidden curriculum? How can educators and institutions make these implicit messages more transparent and equitable for all students?

3. Curriculum decisions involve various stakeholders, including teachers, administrators, policymakers, and community influences. How can these diverse voices collaborate effectively to create a curriculum that meets both academic standards and the unique needs of students in a specific community or region? Discuss the challenges and opportunities in this collaborative process.

Further Reading

• https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Fresno_City_College/Education_30%3A_Introduction_to_Education_(Perez)/07%3A_Curriculum?readerView

• Curriculum Kidd et al. 7.1-7.6 

• Curriculum 13.1-13.8