Chapter 5: Effective Teaching

Chapter Learning Outcomes:

 

Introduction:

Effective classroom environments in alignment with the California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP) and state-adopted Teaching Performance Expectations (TPEs) prioritize student-centered learning, fostering a positive and inclusive atmosphere. This involves creating a safe and respectful space where diverse student backgrounds and perspectives are acknowledged and valued. Teachers should employ research-based instructional strategies to engage and challenge learners, promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Furthermore, an effective classroom environment involves clear communication, both in terms of expectations and feedback, as well as ongoing assessment and adaptation of instructional methods to meet the needs of individual students. Teachers are expected to demonstrate professional ethics, commitment to student success, and continuous self-reflection to ensure continuous growth and improvement. 

5.1: Are teachers born or made?

By Brittany Bowman

Learning Objectives

"Teaching Assistant Orientation (TAO) 2012" by Vandy CFT is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0. 

Introduction

While good teachers are essential, great teaches are invaluable. We always remember our greatest teachers. They are the ones that not only educated us, but the ones that motivated and pushed us to our greatest potential. They were driven by the passion of intellectual aspiration. They are the ones that we looked up to as role models, giving us inspiration to one day repay their dedication and teach our future students with as much passion as when they taught us. They are the individuals we go back to visit to reaffirm how great they once were and how great they still are. These are the teachers that we are so fortunate to have had in our lives. But what makes up a great teacher? Some say it is in the genetic make-up of individuals who are born with distinct, innate qualities and characteristics that makes them better equipped for working in the classroom. Others say that taking courses and reading through textbooks makes a teacher better suited for the job. But who is to say that it can not be somewhere in the middle. Taking into consideration the ideas behind both sides, maybe the answer to the question 'are teachers born or made?' is simply both?

Note

"It's easy to make a buck. It's a lot tougher to make a difference." -Tom Brokaw (Brokaw 2009)


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It's in the Genes

Some believe that genetics and the structured DNA sequence that makes up an individual plays a significant role in how that individual can excel within the classroom as a teacher. A person's genetic sequence can enable them to inherit certain characteristics and qualities that enables their nurturing and teaching side to emerge. These innate characteristics and personality traits can not necessarily be taught, and by tapping into inner talents, the full potential of the teacher can be discovered.

"By nature, some people possess a combination of personality characteristics that are conducive to effective teaching" (Malikow, 2006 1). Having a caring, patient, encouraging, and joyous personality really makes a 'born' teacher stand out compared to a 'made' teacher. These innate characteristics along with many others can not be learned or acquired from reading a textbook or by taking education courses; you either have them or you don't. For a teacher from Framingham, Massachusetts, he had all these qualities and much more. Everyone always remembered Charles Sposato as a natural-born teacher, he went above and beyond expectations. Mr. Sposato was known to be full of spirit and have high amounts of energy that he brought in the classroom to ensure that his students would always be surrounded by a positive environment (Spitz 2007). He even helped a student's family buy needed clothing when money was scarce (Spitz 2007). All the little things really do add up. Based on Mr. Sposato's actions, he was more than a teacher to his students, and he didn't learn that by reading through any textbook.

Note

"Teaching is the only major occupation of man for which we have not yet developed tools that make an average person capable of competence and performance. In teaching we rely on the "naturals," the ones who somehow know how to teach." -Peter Drucker

(Drucker 2007)

Along with many other professions, teaching is primarily based on leadership and communication (Vilhanova 2008). Teachers must have the ability to lead and guide their classroom in a way that promotes controlled and free thinking. It is very important for teachers to be able to communicate effectively, not only to the students but to the parents as well. Communicating to the students is so important to the learning process. If a teacher can not get his/her point across, then it is very possible for the students to not understand the lesson being taught. Communication must be present among, both the teacher and the student. This is where the student can begin to gain trust from the teacher, and vice versa, where the teacher can gain trust from the student (Vilhanova 2008). Gaining each other's trust is very valuable because they are able to rely on each other.

All these aspects and characteristics can only be obtained if it is present in the individuals genes. They can not be taught or learned and that is why, those who possess these innate traits must use them productively or else they would just go to waste.

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It's in the Books

To some individuals, an excellent education and a comprehensive training creates the best foundation in the classroom setting and that natural talent helps but it can't provide for the necessities that makes up an adequate and positive teaching environment. Being good or great at something does not always mean that there will always be passion. People who may not possess a natural talent for teaching, but are determined to still become a teacher, may have more passion that those born with the gift. These individuals would have to work harder for their reward, which shows how driven and committed they truly are.

Note

"...even the most brilliant scientists may not know how to communicate their knowledge to children." -Jay Mathews (Mathews 2002)

The main point for teacher education and training programs is to inform teachers about effective instruction methods that can be very beneficial to improve and make the overall classroom experiences more desirable and more successful (Malikow, 2006 2). Once the teacher training and education is completed, the teachers become higher quality because it allowed teachers to gain more practice and experience. In essence, teachers really do 'make themselves' (Moore, 2004 6).

Teachers' work reflects on the students' work. Studies have shown that teachers, with no means of education training or certification, have a negative influence on students in the classroom. Teachers without this proper training, have a higher percentage of students in their class that scored lower on standardized tests (Mathews 2002). Other studies have revealed that the individuals who received a five-year degree from a teacher education program, tend to stay teaching longer that those who graduated with a four-year degree; also, the individuals with four-year degrees stay teaching longer than those with little or no training at all (Mathews 2002).

According to Education Secretary, Roderick P. Paige, and his teacher quality report, he states that "we now have concrete evidence that smart teachers with solid content knowledge have the greatest effect on student achievement" (Mathews 2002). Well isn't that exactly what teachers strive to accomplish? They want their students to be able to reach their greatest or maximum potential and to get the most out of their education. There is an old saying that parents want what is best for their children. Can't teachers want what is best for their students? The answer is of course, and by spending more time taking extra classes or going through additional educational training, this really underlines how the average teacher can be 'made' into a great teacher.

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It's Both

To the others who fall in the middle, including myself, we believe that great teachers are a combination between the two. Having the qualities, characteristics, and drive in becoming a good teacher is one thing, but taking classes to better educate yourself on how to better your students really takes it over the edge into becoming a great teacher. Who is to say that teachers who seem to be born with this raw, natural talent, couldn't benefit from some type of educational training to reemphasize their strengths and build on their weaknesses.

Teachers are a lot like athletes and artists. All three were born with talents, and those talents will be refined because of the training and performance that comes along with each career (Malikow 1). Even the people that were born with all the traits that would make them an excellent teaching candidate, they still might be missing something. If they do not have the desire, drive, or passion to become a teacher, then these innate traits can be thrown out the window. Proper training and experience will help give advise on different techniques and methods that can be utilized. After teaching for quit some time, the teacher will be able to throw out the methods and techniques that did not work or fix the methods to better suit or accommodate the students. Practice makes perfect!

Resources

Brokaw, Tom. (2009). Tom Brokaw quotes. BrainyQuote. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/t/tombrokaw105667.html

Drucker, Peter. (2007). Quotations about teachers. The quote garden. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from http://www.quotegarden.com/teachers.html

Malikow, Max. (2006). Are teachers born or made? The necessity of teacher training. National Forum of Teacher Education Journal [Electronic],16 3E. Retrieved February 6, 2009, from www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Malikow,%20Max%20Are%20Teachers%20Born%20or%20Made

Mathews, Jay. (2002). Teacher training: too much or not enough? Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A41591-2002Jul8.html

Moore, Alex. (2004). The good teacher: dominant discourses in teaching and teacher education. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

Spitz, Julia. (2007). Charles Sposato: a natural-born teacher. The Metrowest Daily News [Electronic]. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from www.metrowestdailynews.com/homepage/x1434249505

Vilhanova, Anna. (2008). The teacher as a leader: which qualities make a teacher a leader in the classroom. Humanising Language Teaching [Electronic]. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from www.hltmag.co.uk/jan08/sart07.htm


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5.2: What are the differences between direct instruction and discovery learning?

By: Megan Heath

Learning Objectives

•be able to identify the differences between discovery and direct learning and where each style stems from.
•be able to explain methods of teaching for both instruction types.
•be able to discuss the debate of which learning style is most efficient, and what educators and scholars think about each.

Mrs. Smith escorts the students, in her kindergarten classroom, outside to the playground. She asks her students to take off their shoes; she wanted them to feel the grass between their toes, to walk on the rocks and cement, and all the things that had different textures. They spent a little time while outside, just taking in the air and observing things around them. Then she asked them to put their shoes back on and follow her in a line back into the building. On the way back into the school, Mrs. Smith asked her students questions like, “What do you see as we walk down the hall?” “What does it smell like?” “Do you hear anything?” When all of the students returned to their desks, their teacher continued asking questions for the students to brainstorm. She asked them “What color was the fence?” “Did they see any people?” Then she asked her students “what parts of your bodies did you use to get all of this information?”

Across the hall, another kindergarten teacher starts her class; she takes out a folder full of worksheets and distributes them around the classroom; on each worksheet are five square boxes, and in each square is a picture. One picture was a hand, representing touch; a nose was in another box, representing smell. The students study each box, trying to better understand what their teacher was going to teach them today. The teacher takes out some markers and begins to write and draw on the board; she explains to her students what each of the five senses is, and she has them write the words in the correct boxes as she writes them on the board. She explains in detail everything she can possibly think of that her students would need to know about the five senses, including what body parts each sense works with, what smells and tastes one may discover, and even ways some people do not have all of their senses. The teacher talks and explains as her students listen, draw and write the things she puts on the board.

Both of these teachers have taught their students the same information today, however, they each used a different method of teaching to do so. Teacher one, who took her students on a field trip, was performing discovery learning through exploration; whereas, the teacher across the hall was implementing direct instruction.

What is Direct Instruction?

Direct Instruction can also be referred to as explicit teaching; it occurs when educators teach using lectures, presentations and text books to demonstrate a lesson to their students. This type of teaching is the most common way of instruction, and includes direction by the teacher. To teach by direct instruction, you must know what you want your outcome to be; teachers must have a purpose and a specific reason for teaching the subject in order for it to be structured and well planned out (Saskatoon).

What is Discovery Learning?

“Discovery learning is a type of learning where learners construct their own knowledge by experimenting with a domain, and inferring rules from the results of these experiments (Joolingen, 1999, p.385).” In other words, this means that students actively learn through hands-on and interactive experiences. In a discovery learning atmosphere, students are free to work with little or no guidance in order to discover information (Mayer, 2004). Discovery learning focuses on the beliefs of Jean Piaget, in which students should be able to choose how they are going to learn, discover new information, and do so without correction from an educator (Mayer, 2004; Piaget,1970). Of course, teachers would still be present in a discovery learning situation; they would monitor each student and ensure things ran smoothly.

Note

“Each time one prematurely teaches a child something he could have discovered for himself, that child is kept from inventing it and consequently from understanding it completely."
(Piaget, 1970, p. 715)

Educator's Preference

Most educators in mathematics and science typically instruct using discovery learning, as opposed to direct instruction, because they believe it is the best way to achieve an understanding of the subject that will stick with the student, because students learn best by doing (Klahr, 2004). “Over the years, however, some researchers and educators have challenged the argument for hands-on learning. They maintain that a more straightforward approach—known as direct instruction—has the potential to help students learn science more effectively" (Cavanagh, 2004, p. 12). Some educators also believe that using discovery education for younger children works better than direct learning, because it enables the young learners to be engaged and not bored with the subjects they are learning (Klahr, 2004).

What Statistics Show

A study was conducted by the Department of Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University, in which it was discovered that “many more children learn from direct instruction than from discovery learning" (Klahr, 2004, p. 661). This study was conducted on 112 third and fourth grade students and it measured their ability to acquire and retain new information. Based on this information, it is obvious that discovery learning requires some past knowledge of the subject being “discovered” in order to obtain new information. Based on a “half-century of advocacy associated with instruction using minimal guidance” or discovery learning, there has never really been any scientific evidence that proves discovery learning works better than direct instruction (Kirschner, 2006, p. 83).

What Method I Would Use in My Classroom

Personally, I think the ideal classroom would be one that incorporated both direct instruction and discovery learning. I think novice information could be taught using direct instruction and then supplemented by discovery learning. For example, students could be taught the basics by their teacher and then allowed to work independently to discover more about that topic. I don’t foresee a classroom being able to run smoothly when their focus is solely on discovery education, because, in my opinion, at some point direct instruction would have to occur. I believe that educators should make it a priority to incorporate activities into their classroom that allows for students to discover and explore; technology is so readily available, yet so infrequently used for classrooms; something as simple as a WebQuest could allow direct instruction and discovery learning to intermingle as one teaching method.

Note

“If we teach today, as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow”- John Dewey

 

References

Cavanagh, S. (2004). NCLB could alter science teaching. Education Week, 24(11), 12-13.

Joolingen, W. (1999). Cognitive tools for discovery learning. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 10, 385-397.

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist discovery, problem-based, experimental, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86.

Klahr, D., & Nigam, M. (2004). The equivalence of learning paths in early science instruction. Psychological Science, 15(10), 661-667.

Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strike rule against pure discovery learning?: The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14-19.

Piaget, J.(1970). Piaget's theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.),Carmichael's manual of child psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 703–772). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Saskatoon Public Schools. What is Explicit Teaching? Instructional Strategies Online. Retrieved September 17, 2008, from olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/explicitteaching/index.html


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5.3: How can we teach to meet all students' needs?

By Honorina Maristela

Learning Objectives

Introduction

In a traditional classroom setting, the teachers talk while the students listen. Nowadays, traditional settings have completely changed in the field of education. The way the classroom are set-up, the teaching and learning style, the accommodation of individual students and application of small group instruction made the school and teaching challenging both for teachers and students.In addition to these changes, differentiated instruction has been emphasized.

The district and state and federal governments have established our standards and have handed our curriculum down to us. These standards make up goals established for all students. How we reach the goals may require different paths. The core of differentiated instruction is flexibility in content, process, and product based on students' strengths, needs and learning styles. (Levy, 2008 cited in The Clearing House, 2008)

What is Differentiated Instruction?

At the most basic level, differentiating instruction means “shaking up” what goes on in the classroom. Students have multiple options for taking in information, making sense of ideas and expressing what they learn. (Tomlinson, 2001) In other words, differentiated instructing is catering to student’s needs and interests so they can acquire learning efficiently..

The State of Virginia encourages the school districts to apply differentiated instruction in the classrooms. In 2004, the Superintendent of Public Instruction conducted a Professional Development to all School Heads, member of Virginia Association of Elementary School Principals, Assistant Principals and Lead teachers to participate in the conference entitled “ Differentiated Instruction: Meeting the Needs of All Children” the highlight for this conference included the special needs students and at-risk students.

Why differentiate?

Individual students are different in many ways. The use of differentiated instruction will gives the students the opportunity to meet their needs in an intensive step that will expedite the learning skill of the individual student. We as teachers give the support and the careful planning of the instruction to make sure that the activities will be in the students’ instructional level and interest.

Differentitate Why: addresses the teachers’ reason for modifying the leaning experience. Teachers believe modification is important for many reasons. Three key reasons include access to learning, motivation to learn and efficiency of learning. Any or all of these three reasons for differentiating instruction can be tied to students readiness, interest, and learning profile. (Tomlinson, 1999)

In differentiated classroom, teachers begin at the level of the students, not the front of a curriculum guide. They accept and build upon the premise that learners differ in important ways. Thus, they also accept and act on the premise that teachers must be ready to engage students in instruction though different learning modalities, by appealing to differing interest and by using varied rates of instruction along with varied degrees of complexity. In differentiated classrooms, teachers ensure that a student competes agains himself or herself as he or she grows and develops more than he or she competes against other students. (Tomlinson, 1999)

Though differentiated instruction and activities, students take a greater responsibility and ownership of their own learning, activities that are primarily focused on students’ multiple intelligences, higher order thinking, and learning styles. With this in mind, differentiated instruction is an effective tool to implement in the classroom in order to meet students’ learning style and strengthen multiple intelligences and encourage them to use high order thinking. (Bailey and Williams-Black, p. 134)

How to Differentiate?

It has been a big question for teachers how to differentiate instruction in the classroom. It is indeed a challenging task to put into use this approach. I myself can relate to this for it took me five years to attain the effectiveness of this approach and I am still learning until now. The preparation and designed activities should target the individual needs of the students.

Being in an inclusion is a tough job, having four groups of students with individual needs ranging from high, average, low level and special needs students with IEP (Individualized Education Program) and 504 plans. It is a team work of the teacher, special education teacher and the students in carrying out the activities in the classroom.

Use formal and informal assessments in making decision with small group instruction. Most schools are required certain formal assessments such as TPRI(Texas Primary Reading Assessment, DIBLE(Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skill, DRA( Developmental Reading Assessment) and/or QRI(Qualitative Reading Inventory. (Diller, 2007)

These assessments are useful tools for teachers for figuring out how to start with their small groups. Once the teacher determined the level of the individual students she may begin applying the differentiated instruction in the classroom. The teacher can design her own activities that are according to the instructional level of the students. One great example is in reading. Using leveled books that are color coded are useful in targeting the instructional level of the students and work towards it to improve to the fullest. The idea of using the flexible grouping of Debbie Diller is useful for teachers to differentiate. As Diller stated, to create flexible group folders for thinking about small groups as well as in whole group. Once the student show progress he/she can be moved into different group. (Diller, 2007,p. 24)

Flexible groupings were defined by Radencich and McKay (1995) as” grouping that is not static, where members of the group change frequently. This emerged as a practice to address concerns. It acknowledges that all grouping patterns- large groups, small groups, teams and individuals have value because they all offer the reader slightly different experiences with different outcomes. Students may work with a partner, in a small cooperative or teacher-led group, or with the whole class. The basis for this may be students’ interest or needs. ( Ford, 2005 cited in Radencich and McKay, 1995)

In planning flexible grouping teachers should consider the strengths and weaknesses of each grouping approach and then put them together to allow the teacher to best meet the needs of the classroom. The groups are formed and dissolved as needs changes to allow for maximum flexibility, avoiding the static nature of the grouping patterns of the past. ( Ford, 2005 cited in Radencich and McKay, 1995)

Note

Key Principles of a Differentiated Instruction

Teachers Role

Mixed-ability classrooms that offer differentiated instruction make good sense for teachers, as well a student. For many teachers, offering differentiated instruction first requires a paradigm shift. ( Tomlinson, 2001)

Teachers who become comfortable with differentiated classroom would probably say their role differs in some significant ways from that of a traditional teacher. When teacher differentiate instruction, they move away from being themselves as keepers and dispensers of knowledge and move toward seeing themselves as organizers of learning opportunities. (Tomlnison, 2001)

Teachers who differentiate instruction focus on their role as coach or mentor(Tomlinson, 2001). We serve as a guide and facilitator for the students in doing their responsibilities in completing their task. We organize the activities for them to discover, explore and share acquired knowledge. ..

Note

A teacher is a compass that activates the magnets of curiosity, knowledge, and wisdom in the pupils. ~Ever Garrison

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Conclusion

When applying differentiated instruction time is required in order for it to work. It is not an overnight activity to see the effectiveness of this approach. It takes time and dedication to help the learners be successful.

For most teachers, the classroom is the place where we spend our career. The classroom is the place where we give the better part of our lifetime trying to make a difference. It is a curiosity of teaching that no two days are the alike. We must remember that we have every opportunity to transform ourselves and our practice, just as we have every opportunity to stagnate, remain much the same teacher we were when we began. ( Tomlinson, 1999)

References

Bailey, J.P. and Williams-Black,T.H.(2008).Differentiated instruction three teacher's perspective.College Reading Association Yearbook(2008).pp. 29,134. Retrieved January 30, 2009 from http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=33435085&site=ehost-live

Diller, D. (2007).Making the most of small groups differentiation for all.Markham,Ontario Canada:Pembroke Publishes,pp. 21–24.

Ford, M.(2005).Differentiation through flexible grouping successfully reading all readers.Learning Point Associates(2005),p. 3.Retrieved February 7, 2009 from www.cpsgifted.org/pdf/flexibleGrouping1.pdf

Levy, H.(2008).Meeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction:Helping every child reach and exceed standtards.Clearing House;Mar/Apr2008.Vol.81(4),2.Retrieved from February 6, 2009 http://web.ebscohost.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/ehost/dilivery?vid=7&hid=113&sid=1cb60ea3...

Tomlinson,C.A. (1999).The differentiated classroom responding to the needs of all learners.Alexandria VA:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Publications,pp. 2,48-49,119.

Tomlinson, C.A. (2001).How to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms(2nd ed.)Alexandria VA:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Publications,p. 16.

Common Wealth of Virginia.Department of Education.Retrieved February 5, 2009 from www.doe.virginia.gov/VDOE/suptsmemos/2004/inf025.html

Special Needs- Differentiation in Action.Retrieved February 8, 2009 from http://www.teachers.tv/video/21992


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5.4: What are the theories of multiple intelligences and emotional intelligence?

By Meagan Keith

Learning Objectives

What is intelligence?

The traditional view of intelligence has always been that people are born with a fixed amount of intelligence in which that level does not change over a lifetime (Hampton, 2008). Under the traditional view of intelligence, intelligence consists of two abilities—logic and language. Short answer tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and the Scholastic Aptitude Test, are common ways of measuring intelligence.

However, in the past twenty years or so, a more modern view of intelligence has begun to replace existing traditional views. Extensive research has shown that it is, indeed, possible to have more than one intelligence and that the level of intelligence can change over a lifetime. This theory of intelligence is called Multiple Intelligences as created by Howard Gardner, Ph.D., a psychologist and professor of neuroscience from Harvard University.

According to Gardner, “Intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to new situations and the capacity to learn from one’s past experiences” (Hampton, 2008). Gardner believes that, “we all possess at least [seven] unique intelligences through which we are able to learn and teach new information” (Hampton, 2008). He believes that “we can all improve each of the intelligences, though some people will improve more readily in one intelligence area than the others” (Hampton, 2008).

Gardner does not believe in short-answer tests to measure intelligence because “short answer tests do not measure disciplinary mastery or deep understanding, rather they measure root memorization skills and only one’s ability to do well on short-answer tests” (Hampton, 2008). Assessments that value the process over the final answer, such as the Performance Assessment in Math (PAM) and the Performance Assessment in Language (PAL), are more accurate measures of intelligence in Gardner’s theory than short-answer tests.

Introduction to Multiple Intelligences

In 1983 Howard Gardner proposed his theory of multiple intelligences in the book Frames of the Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. In his book, Gardner proposes that there are seven possible intelligences—linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. Gardner would go on to add three more intelligences to his list—naturalist intelligence, spiritual intelligence, and existential intelligence—in his later book Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligence for the 21st Century (1999).

According to the Educational Researcher, to arrive at Gardner’s first seven intelligences Gardner and his colleagues examined literature on the “development of cognitive capacities in normal individuals, the breakdown of cognitive capacities under various kinds of organic pathology, and the existence of abilities in ‘special populations,’ such as prodigies, autistic individuals, idiots savants, and learning disabled children” (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).

Gardner and his colleagues also examined literature on “forms of intellect that exist in different species, forms of intellect valued in different cultures, the evolution of cognition across the millennia, as well as two forms of psychological evidence—the results of factor-analytic studies of human cognitive capacities and the outcome of studies of transfer and generalization” (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).

Intelligences that appeared repeatedly in Gardner’s research were added to a provisional list, whilst intelligences only appearing once or twice were discarded. Gardner claimed that, “as a species, human beings have evolved over the millennia to carry out at least these seven forms of thinking” on his provisional list (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).

Multiple Intelligences Defined

Linguistic intelligence is the ability to learn languages and use language to express what is on one’s mind and to understand people. Those who have high linguistic intelligence are well-developed in verbal skills and have sensitivity to sounds, meanings and rhythms of words (Hampton, 2008). These kinds of people enjoy reading various kinds of literature, playing word games, making up poetry and stories, and getting into involved discussions with other people (Hampton, 2008).

Examples of people with high linguistic ability include poets, writers, public speakers, TV and radio newscasters, and journalists.

Logical-Mathematical intelligence is the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively, and think logically. Those who are “math smart” have the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate scientifically (Smith, 2008). Those with high Logical-Mathematical intelligence are highly capable of thinking conceptually and abstractly (Hampton, 2008). This kind of intelligence is often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking (Hampton, 2008).

Careers that “math smart” people tend to be employed in include computer technicians and programmers, accountants, poll takers, medical professionals, and math teachers (Smith, 2008).

Musical Intelligence is “the capacity to think in music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them, and manipulate them” (Hampton, 2008). Those who are musically intelligent learn through sounds, rhythms, tones, beats, music produced by other people or present in the environment,” according to Gardner (Hampton, 2008). Musically intelligent people also have the ability to perform, compose, and appreciate music and music patterns (Smith, 2008).

Jobs in which musical intelligence is a desired aptitude include advertising, music studio directors and recorders, singers and songwriters, conductors, and music teachers (Hampton, 2008).

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence is defined as “having the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body to solve problems” (Smith, 2008). Those with high kinesthetic intelligence communicate well through body language and like to be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, and role playing (Lane, n.d.). These kinds of people have a keen sense of body awareness and have the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements (Smith, 2008).

Gymnasts, physical therapists, mechanics, athletes, builders, dancers, doctors, surgeons, nurses, and crafts persons tend to be highly kinesthetic.

Spatial intelligence “involves the potential to recognize and use patterns of wide space and more confined areas,” according to Gardner (Smith, 2008). As well as, “the ability to manipulate and mentally rotate objects,” adds Gardner (Thompson, 1999). Graphic artists, architects, and mapmakers tend to be highly spatially intelligent. These people are very aware of their environments.

Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people (Smith, 2008). These kinds of people are “people smart” and work well with others. Examples of people with high interpersonal intelligence include educators, salespeople, and religious and political leaders. Interpersonally intelligent people learn through personal interactions.

“[People with high interpersonal intelligence] probably have a lot of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people, and exhibit a deep understanding of other people’s viewpoints,” according to MI Indentified (Hampton, 2008).

“Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations,” according to Gardner. “It involves have an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives” according to The Encyclopedia of Informal Education (Smith, 2008). People who possess high intrapersonal intelligence are “self smart.” These people know who they are, what they are capable of doing, how to react to things, what to avoid, and what they gravitate to (Hampton, 2008).

Psychologists, philosophers, social workers, and counselors are all examples of “self smart” careers.

Naturalist intelligence is defined as the ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature (Hampton, 2008). Those with high naturalist intelligence include gardeners, biologists, birdwatchers, florists, horticulturists and more.

According to EdWeb, “People who are sensitive to changes in weather patterns or are adept at distinguishing nuances between large numbers of similar objects may be expressing naturalist intelligence abilities” (Carvin, n.d.). Naturalist intelligence is the intelligence that presumably helped our ancestors survive—“to decide what to eat and what to run from” (Holmes, 2002).

Existential Intelligence is defined as the ability to be sensitive to, or having the capacity for, conceptualizing or tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as what is the meaning of life? Why are we born? And why do we die (Wilson, 2005)? Existential intelligence is often called the “wondering smart” or the metaphysical intelligence.

The clearest definition of existential intelligence defined by Gardner is: “individuals who exhibit the proclivity to pose and ponder questions about life, death, and ultimate realities” (Wilson, 2005). However, Gardner has not fully committed himself to this ninth intelligence despite his book Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligence for the 21st Century in which he first mentions the possible existence of a ninth intelligence.

Spiritual Intelligence according to Dr. Cynthia Davis, clinical and corporate psychologist and emotional intelligence business coach, “is the ultimate intelligence in which we address and solve problems of meaning and value, in which we can place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning-giving context, and the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of action or one life path is more meaningful than another” (Mindwise Pty Ltd, 2004) .

“Spiritual intelligence is the intelligence that which makes us whole, integral and transformative,” according to Danah Zohar, author of Spiritual Capital: Wealth We Can Live By (Spiritual Intelligence and Spirtual Health, 2008). Spiritual intelligence is not necessarily religious nor is it dependent upon religion as a foundation (Mindwise Pty Ltd, 2004). Characteristics of spiritual intelligence include the capacity to face and use suffering, the capacity to face and transcend pain, the capacity to be flexible, actively and spontaneously adaptive, and high self-awareness (Mindwise Pty Ltd, 2004).

Note

GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Linguistic Intelligence

“Word Smart”

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

“Number/Reasoning smart”

Spatial Intelligence

“Picture Smart”

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

“Body Smart”

Musical Intelligence

“Music Smart”

Interpersonal Intelligence

“People Smart”

Intrapersonal Intelligence

“Self Smart”

Naturalist Intelligence

“Nature Smart”

Existential Intelligence

“Wondering Smart”

Spiritual Intelligence

“Spiritual Smart”

Conclusion to Multiple Intelligences

Note

"The single most important contribution education can make to a child's development is to help him towards a field where his talents best suit him, where he will be satisfied and competent."

-Howard Gardner

Since the publication of Gardner’s Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner’s theory has been put into practice in schools all over the world. Gardner’s theory teaches that teachers should not teach the same material to the entire class rather individualize instruction by identifying students’ strengths and weaknesses.

One way of identifying students’ strengths and weaknesses is to offer a multiple intelligence assessment. Multiple Intelligence assessments typically ask students/test takers to rank statements from 1-5 indicating how well that statement describes them ("5" being the statement describes you exactly, and "1" being the statement does not describe you at all). Statements might look like the ones below from Dr. Terry Armstrong’s online assessment of strengths (Armstrong, n.d.):

Teachers can use assessments like Armstrong's to take an inventory of learner’s skills so that they can tailor their teaching methods to their learner’s strengths.

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Introduction to Emotional Intelligence

Emotion can be any number of things. It can be anger, sadness, fear, enjoyment, love, surprise, disgust, or shame (Goleman, 2005, p. 289). Author of Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman, suggests that emotion refers to a “feeling and its distinctive thoughts, psychological and biological states, and range of propensities to act” (Goleman, 2005, p. 289). But, the most fascinating part about emotions is that they are universal. People from cultures around the world all recognize the same basic emotions, even peoples presumably untainted by exposure to cinema or television (Goleman, 2005, p. 290).

There are two basic definitions of emotional intelligence. One is the Mayer-Salovey definition and the other, the Goleman definition. There are numerous other definitions of emotional intelligence floating about, especially on the net. However, none are as academically or scientifically accepted as Goleman's and Mayer and Salovey's.

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Emotional Intelligence Defined

Mayer-Salovey Definition

The first two people to suggest that emotional intelligence is a true form of intelligence were Jack Mayer and Peter Salovey. Mayer and Salovey are leading researchers in the field of emotional intelligence. They first published their findings in a 1990 seminal article where they defining emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions," as well as, "the ability to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Hein, 2007). Mayer and Salovey further described emotional intelligence as, “a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve in one’s life” (Hein, 2007).

Along with their definition of emotional intelligence, Mayer and Salovey proposed that there were four branches of emotional intelligence. Here is a compiled list of details from Mayer and Salovey’s 1990 and 1997 articles on the four branches of emotional intelligence:

1. Perception Appraisal and Expression of Emotion

2. Emotional Facilitation of Thinking

3. Understanding and Analyzing Emotions; Employing Emotional Knowledge

4. Reflective Regulation of Emotions to Promote Emotional and Intellectual Growth

Goleman Defintion

Daniel Goleman, Ph.D., is another important figure in the field of emotional intelligence. Goleman is the successful author of New York Times bestsellers, Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence, as well as an internationally known psychologist. Goleman is currently working as a science journalist and frequently lectures to professional groups, business audiences, and on college campuses (Bio, 2009). Goleman is one of the foremost experts in emotional intelligence. In his book, Emotional Intelligence, Goleman defines emotional intelligence as, “a set of skills, including control of one’s impulses, self-motivation, empathy and social competence in interpersonal relationships” (Goleman, 2005).

Goleman, like Mayer and Salovey, divided emotional intelligence into key components; three that pertained to oneself and two that pertained to how one relates to others (Gergen, 1999). Goleman's five key components of emotional intelligence are: Emotional self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships. Goleman, for the most part, agrees with Mayer and Salovey. However, in recent years, Goleman has favored a four component system as opposed to his original five components in 1995.

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Five Key Components (Goleman, 2005, p. 43-44):

1. Knowing one's emotions

2. Managing emotions

3. Motivating oneself

4. Recognizing emotions in others

5. Handling relationships

Conclusion to Emotional Intelligence

In 1998, Goleman developed a set of guidelines for The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations that could be applied in the workplace and in schools. This set of guidelines is divided into four parts: preparation, training, transfer and maintenance, and evaluation. Each phase is equally as important as the last.

Some of the first guidelines pertain to assessment. Teachers should assess the class and individuals and inform them of their strengths and weaknesses. In delivering the assessment the teacher should try to be accurate and clear. They should also allow plenty of time for the student to digest and integrate the information (Cherniss, 1998). The teacher should provide feedback in a safe and supportive environment and avoid making excuses or downplaying the seriousness of the deficiencies (Cherniss, 1998).

Other guidelines include: maximizing learner choice, encouraging people to participate, linking learning goals to personal values, adjusting expectations, and gauging readiness (Cherniss, 1998). Teachers should foster a positive relationship between their students and themselves. They should make change self-directed; tailoring a learning program that meets individual needs and circumstances.

Teachers should also set clear goals and make the steps towards those goals manageable, and not too overly ambitious (Cherniss, 1998). Teachers should provide opportunities to practice the new behaviors they have learned. Then, teachers should provide periodic feedback on the learners’ progress (Cherniss, 1998).

Teachers should rely on experiential methods of learning, such as activities that engage all the senses and that are dramatic and powerful, to aid learners in developing social and emotional competencies (Cherniss, 1998). Eventually, learners will develop a greater self-awareness. They should be able to understand how their thoughts, feelings, and behavior affect themselves and others at this point (Cherniss, 1998).

Note

The Self Science Curriculum

from Self Science: The Subject is Me by Karen F. Stone (Goleman, 2005, p. 305)

Main Components

Self-awareness:

obeserving yourself and recognizing your feelings; building a vocabulary for feelings; knowing the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and reactions

Personal Decision-making:

examining your actions and knowing their consequences; knowing if thought or feeling is ruling a decision; applying these insights to issues such a sex and drugs

Managing Feelings:

monitoring "self-talk" to catch negative messages such as internal put-downs; realizing what is behind a feeling (e.g., the hurt that underlies anger); finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger and sadness

Handling Stress:

learning the value of exercise, guided imagery, relaxation methods

Empathy:

understandign other peoples' feelings and concerns and taking their perspective; appreciating the differences in how people feel about things

Communications:

talking about feelings effectively; becoming a good listener and question-asker; distinguishing between what someone does or says and your own reactions or judgements about it; sending "I" messages instead of blame

Self-disclosure:

valuing openness and developing trust in a relationship; knowing when it is safe to risk talking about your private feelings

Insight:

identifing patterns in your emotional life and reactions; recognizing similar patterns in others

Self-acceptance:

feeling pride and seeing yourself in a positive light; recognizing your strengths and weaknesses; being able to laugh at yourself

Personal Responsibility:

taking responsibility; recognizing the consequences of your decisions and actions, accepting your feelings and moods, following through on commitments (e.g., studying)

Assertiveness:

stating your concerns and feelings without anger or passivity

Group dynamics:

cooperation; knowing when and how to lead, when to follow

Conflict resolution:

how to fight fair with other kids, with parents, with teachers; the win/win model for negotiating compromise

 

References

Armstrong, T. (n.d.). Assessment: Find Your Strengths! Retrieved February 5, 2009, from Multiple Intelligences for Adult Literacy and Education: http://literacyworks.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html

Bio. (2009). Retrieved February 8, 2009, from DanielGoleman.info: http://www.danielgoleman.info/blog/biography/

Carvin, A. (n.d.). Naturalist Intelligence. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from EdWeb: Exploring Technology and School Reform: http://www.edwebproject.org/edref.mi.th8.html

Cherniss, C. G. (1998). Guidelines for Best Practice. Retrieved February 19, 2009, from Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations: eiconsortium.org/reports/guidelines.html

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Educational Researcher , 18 (8), 4-10. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from JSTOR database.

Gergen, D. (1999, February 8). Emotional Intelligence. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from Online NewsHour with Jim Lehrer: www.pbs.org/newshour/gergen/february99/gergen_2-8.html

Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional Intelligence (10th Anniversary ed.). New York: Bantam Books.

Hampton, R. (2008, September 30). Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from lth3.k12.il.us/rhampton/mi/mi.html

Hein, S. (2007). Definition of Emotional Intelligence. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from Emotional Intelligences: http://eqi.org/eidefs.htm

Holmes, K. (2002, June 4). Naturalist Intelligence. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from Lesley University Library: http://www.lesley.edu/faculty/kholmes/presentations/naturalist.html

Lane, C. (n.d.). Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide: http://www.tecweb.org/styles/gardner.html

Mindwise Pty Ltd. (2004, April 13). Spirtual Intelligence. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from Mindwise: mindwise.com.au/spiritual_intelligence.shtml

Smith, M. K. (2008). Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved February 4, 2009, from The Encyclopedia of Informal Education: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm

Spiritual Intelligence and Spirtual Health. (2008, February 21). Retrieved February 5, 2009, from My Health for Life: www.myhealth.gov.my/myhealth/eng/kesihatan_mental_content.jsp?lang=mental&storyid=1203581305747&storymaster=1203581305747

Thompson, H. (1999). Visual-Spatial Intelligence. Retrieved February 4, 2009, from hmt.myweb.uga.edu/webwrite/visual-spatial.htm

Wilson, L. O. (2005). Newer Views of Learning: Exploring the Ninth Intelligence-Maybe. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from ED 703: www.uwsp.edu/education/lwilson/learning/ninthintelligence.htm


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5.5: What is the nature of cooperative learning?

by Aaron Burdon

Learning Objectives

Overview

Our comprehension of our vast universe grows each day. With every new discovery and information gathered from researchers across the globe, we continue to come closer and closer to our understanding of the universe we live in. Not long ago, we believed that the world was flat; however, today we have access to real time pictures taken from satellites orbiting our world to prove its true form. What we teach our children today may be far advanced from what we learned as children ourselves. New discoveries may lead to future generations treating the knowledge of today as obsolete and outdated.

Perhaps equally as important to what we teach our students is also how we teach them to learn the material. As we grow in our understanding of how the human brain operates, we must also use this understanding to help us learn more efficiently. One of the more widely accepted methods of learning that is being applied in today's classroom is that of cooperative learning. This method differs in many ways to that of traditional lecture methods of learning. In this article, we will explore the many ways to effectively apply cooperative learning, the advantages, and the possible challenges of this method.

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What Is Cooperative Learning?

The traditional classroom often consists of classes in which children of similar ability levels are taught together. Nearly all classrooms in the United States are taught by grade level specific to the age of the student rather than his or her ability. Many schools also group students according to their apparent ability levels, but this risks becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy for each respective group. By placing students into group in this way, we run the risk of those placed in low-level learning groups perceiving themselves as unintelligent or slow-witted. Grouping students together with varying levels of ability and backgrounds can help eliminate this threat. A very popular method of learning in this way is called cooperative learning.

Cooperative learning is defined as "the collaboration on a task by a small group of students who resolve differences of opinion, share responsibility, consider one another's ideas, and work toward common goals." (Berk, 2008) Unlike traditional methods, cooperative learning lets students enhance the weaknesses of their peers with their own strengths. Students feel a part of a team rather than isolated and students deemed as having low-ability can benefit from those considered higher. In a symbiotic relation, higher level students also tend to do better by teaching the learned material to their peers.

Note

Cooperative learning is the collaboration on a task by a small group of students who resolve differences of opinion, share responsibility, consider one another's ideas, and work toward common goals. (Berk, 2008)

According to Robert E. Slavin of Johns Hopkins University, there are four major perspectives on cooperative learning, which are motivational, social cohesion, cognitive development, and cognitive elaboration (Slavin, 1995). The motivational perspective focuses on the reward for the group in achieving their objective, and that the only way for the group to achieve this goal is to learn how to work together. The theory that students want each other to succeed is more in keeping with the social cohesion perspective, but is similar to the motivational perspective in that the members of the group are motivated to succeed, but instead of goal oriented, it is more motivated by compassion.

The cognitive development perspective takes a very different approach to cooperative learning in that it contends that the interaction of students with their peers stimulates the mind and increases the ability to learn. Unlike being motivated by a common goal or by compassion for their peers, those who follow the cognitive development perspective feel that the human brain simply learns better in a group environment than on its own.

A variation of this is the fourth theory of cognitive elaboration, which contends that the best way to enhance the knowledge already present in the brain is to in turn explain it to ones peers. This slightly differs from cognitive development perspective in that the members of the group must already have some knowledge of the material before entering the group.

Note

Four major perspectives on cooperative learning:

motivational - group focused on common goal

social cohesion - group wants each other to succeed

cognitive development - the human brain simply learns better in a group environment

cognitive elaboration - the best way to

What are some Cooperative Learning examples?

For almost a quarter of a century, Dr. Spenser Kagan has been developing teaching structures of learning based on cooperative learning, called Kagan Structures, to help in the classroom as well the business world. (Kagan, 2008)

Figure 

5.5.1

5.5.1: Image 1

One of Kagan's most widely used method of cooperative learning is that of RoundRobin, purposely spelled as one word to differentiate the term from the standard definition of round robins, a type of athletic tourneyment. In a RoundRobin group, each learner takes a turn orally presenting the material that they have learned, helping them to better organize their thoughts on the material. Kagan says that labeling methods of cooperative learning like RoundRobin are beneficial to the student because "students know exactly what to do" when instructed to use a specified method. According to Kagan, this is also helpful to instructors in that it helps facilitate communication among peers in learning from each other how to teach.

Another method that is fast becoming a popular form of cooperative classroom learning is that of the Jigsaw method. Elliot Aronson, Professor Emeritus at the University of California in Santa Cruz, first implemented his Jigsaw method in 1971 initially as a way to deal with the sudden desegregation of schools in Austin, Texas. By placing students into groups with various social and ethnic differences each with the same goal to succeed, the hostility became muted as the students were forced to work together to achieve success.

The Jigsaw method gets its name because each student is a vital piece of the overall puzzle that is the learning task. Students are first divided into groups and assigned various portions of the material to become an expert on. Then, each student meets with students from other group assigned to the same portion of the material and discuss what they have learned. This allows for the student to share what he or she learned on their own while also hearing other students perspectives. Eventually, these students return to their original groups and in turn teaches the members of their group the material that they learned.

Note

Examples of Cooperative Learning:

RoundRobin (Kagan) - the group takes turns orally presenting the material.

Jigsaw (Aronson) - learners are split up into groups, assigned portions of the material to learn, meet with learners from other groups assigned the same portion, and then return to their groups to teach the material they have learned.

Advantages and Possible Challenges of Cooperative Learning

As mentioned earlier, there are many advantages to cooperative learning supported by empirical evidence. Students who participate in cooperative learning programs have outperformed students in traditional learning programs at the elementary, secondary, and collage levels, as cited in Boling and Robinson's article on how cooperative learning is used in lecture-based distance learning. According to the journal article, students have been shown to increase social skills, perceptions of their own ability, and the relevance of the material they are learning (Boling 1999).

Although cooperative learning can be highly effective, there are also some possible challenges in this style. One of the major criticisms of cooperative learning is that it tends to hold back the learning potential of those students who are naturally gifted. Oftentimes, students who are prone to social anxiety and prefer to work alone may suffer a negative effect of cooperative learning. Instructors must understand that cooperative learning is not for everyone and must compliment or supplement some material to students who thrive in a less socially active environment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, cooperative learning is a very different style of learning than how traditional school systems have taught student. There are a number of theories behind why this method tends to be effective; however, there are still a number of unknown variables out there that make cooperative learning hardly the absolute best way to present material. Still, learning methods like Kagan's RoundRobin and Aronson's Jigsaw techniques have proven to be very helpful and have empirical evidence that supports the increase in participants learning ability.

References

Berk, Laura E.. "Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood" Infants, Children, and Adolescents . 6th. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc., 2008.

Kagan, Dr. Spencer. "A Brief History of Kagan Structures." Kagan Online. Spring 2003. The Kagan Club. 21 Sep 2008 <http://www.kaganonline.com/KaganClub/index.html>.

Aronson, Dr. Elliot. "Overview of the Technique." Jigsaw Classroom. Spring 2008. Social Psychology Network. 21 Sep 2008 <www.jigsaw.org/overview.htm>.

Boling, Nancy C., Daniel H. Robinson. "Interactive Study, Interactive Multi-Media, or Cooperative Learning: Which Activity Best Supplements Lecture-Based Distance Learning?." Journal of Educational Pschology 91 No.1 (1999): 169-174.

Slavin, Robert E.. "Research on Cooperative Learning and Achievement: What We Know, What We Need to Know." October 1995. Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk Johns Hopkins University.


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5.6: What is the effect of having high expectations for students?

by Kathleen Crossin

Introduction

Most of us are guilty of forming opinions of people based on our first impressions. What happens when a teacher forms an opinion of a student based on first impressions, cognitive abilities, economic status, ethnicity, gender, or perceived achievement level? Are the teacher's expectations of the student likely to have an effect on student performance?

Pygmalion Effect and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Researchers Rosenthal and Jacobson published a study of the effects of teacher expectations. The Pygmalion effect, also known as the "teacher expectancy effect" ("Pygmalion effect," 2008, para.1) explains that students will meet the expectations they feel the teacher has for them. If the student feels that the teacher expects them to do well, they will meet those expectations. Conversely, if a teacher has low expectations for a student, the teacher's behavior toward that student will ensure that the expectation was accurate (Tauber, 1998, para. 5). The Pygmalion effect is closely associated with the self-fulfilling prophecy ("Self-fulfilling prophecy, 2008). Robert Merton is credited with this term (Tauber, 1998). He explained the five points involved:

Note

“Whatever we expect with confidence becomes our own self-fulfilling prophecy”--- Brian Tracy

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How Perceptive are Children to a Teacher's Expectations?

According to research studies (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 3), students are very attuned to the differences in which teachers teach and interact with students according to the teacher's expectations (Rubie-Davies, 2006). In a study (Rubie-Davies, 2006) fourth graders were asked how they knew if the teacher labeled them as smart. The students were able to discern this information from the type of instruction the teacher used, the teacher's style of assessment, and the teacher's use of non-verbal actions (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 3). A further research experiment (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 3) illustrated that fourth graders were able to merely watch a teacher's non-verbal cues and determine if the teacher was speaking to high or low expectation students (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 4). As we can see from these studies, children are very conscious of a teacher's expectations.

Is it Possible to Have High Expectations for all Students?

Note

"Treat a man as he is, he will remain so. Treat a man the way he can be and ought to be, and he will become as he can be and should be".---Goethe

Students with Cognitive Disabilities

So crucial is the need for high expectations that there are two laws that deal with ensuring high expectations for all children (Quenemoen & Thurlow, 2007). No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) both "require that all children count in school accountability measures so high expectations will result in high achievement for every child" (Quenemoen & Thurlow, 2007, para. 4). In a national survey (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 13), 84% of teachers questioned did not believe that children with special needs should be required to achieve the same goals as other students (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 13). These low expectations are communicated to students by the labels they receive in school. Labeling puts an emphasis on the student's shortcomings (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 50). While it may not be possible to meet the same standards as other children, a teacher with high expectations for students with cognitive disabilities can help establish an environment that is not conducive to further inhibiting a student's achievements (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 88).

Income and Racial Diversity

Do teachers have low expectations of students from low-income families? Do minority students face bias due to stereotypes? Alfinio Flores (2007) studied this topic in reference to the differences in math scores between low-income minority students and White students (Flores, 2007, para. 1). Flores (2007) states that the percentage of White teachers is 88%, while the minority students make up 33% of the student population (Flores, 2007, para. 15). Flores feels that many factors account for the differences in test scores. Teachers, who have low expectations of these minority students and as a result do not teach students more advanced math, are one of the problems (Flores, 2007, para. 16). Research (Flores, 2007) has shown that the achievement gap in poor and minority students is due to a lack of opportunity, not a lack of intelligence (Flores, 2007, para. 40). He concludes that “there is nothing intrinsic to the students’ backgrounds or cultures that would prevent them from achievement” (Flores, 2007, para. 28). Researcher, Richard Elmore, a researcher who studies schools with racial diversity and high poverty levels, found that schools that were successful, were schools in which teachers and administrators had high expectations for students (Elmore, 2006, para. 4). In a study (Brown & Medway, 2007) of a school (with 10 years of unsatisfactory student progress) with a high percentage of low-income students, 70% population of African-American students, and 34% of students in special education classes, a plan that focused on high expectations brought about national awards for their subsequent accomplishments(Brown & Medway, 2007, para. 9).

Gender

Are male and female students afforded the same opportunities for academic achievement? Society has clearly shown us that we expect different behaviors from males and females (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 1). In the classroom, males benefit from high expectations and are encouraged to achieve their goals. Conversely, females are encouraged to be model students (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 7, 8). Evidence of this bias is shown by males out-scoring females on college entrance standardized tests (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 9). In an effort to address this inequality, the GESA (Gender/Ethnic/Racial Expectations and Student Achievement) Program was developed (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 1). Results from this program showed an increase in classroom opportunities for females, increases in math and reading scores, and the teachers felt that the program was beneficial in raising their cognizance of the issues addressed (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 20).

"Average" Students

Does the "average" student get left out? So much attention is paid to special needs students, but what about the average student (Gonder, 1993, para. 1)? A variety of methods have been successfully used to engage these students (Gonder, 1993, para. 3). One of the methods involves increasing expectations by changing the curriculum focus from basic recall to a curriculum focused on analysis and concepts. (Gonder, 1993, para. 13). This curriculum change lets the student know that you expect more from them and you feel them capable of succeeding (Gonder, 1993, para. 13). Another way some high schools are delivering the message of high expectations is through personalized attention (Gonder, 1993, para. 11). In these schools, once a semester "the adviser, student, and parent meet to discusss the student's educational goals and develop a plan to meet them" (Gonder, 1993, para. 11).

Gifted Students

Underachieving gifted students sounds like an oxymoron, when compared to the stereotypical views of gifted children (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 18). For many teachers, the label of "gifted" means that the student is motivated to excel(Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 18). For some students, the lack of challenging work, causes them to behave poorly in class causing the teacher to lower their expectations of that student (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 20). Some gifted children rise to the challenge of changing the teacher's new perception, but others may "fall victim to self-fulfilling prophecies" (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 21). To prevent this cycle of low expectations leading to a negative self-fulfilling prophecy, teachers need to be aware of the ways in which gifted students react to boredom in the classroom (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 28). If teachers realize these reactions for what they are, they will not lower their expectations (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 21).

Do All Students Fall Victim to Low Expectations?

As a parent, I feel strongly that all teachers should hold high expectations for their students. I know that my children look up to their teachers and are influenced by what happens in the classroom. I cannot imagine a better feeling than someone telling you that you are full of potential and ability. As we have seen from various research experiments, teachers can convey these thoughts merely in the manner in which they teach. I also feel that it is my responsibility as a parent to help my child develop a strong sense of self efficacy. As we go through life, we are going to be faced with people who do not have high expectations of us. Should we fall victim to the self-fulfilling prophecy each time we meet someone who does not hold us in high regard? Fortunately, not everyone is susceptible to the expectancy effects (EE). Kolb & Jussim (1994) state that "it is important to realize that some vulnerable or 'at risk' students, nevertheless, are more resilient than others and seem impervious to the deleterious impact of negative EE" (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 43).

Conclusion

While not all students are negatively impacted by low expectations, research (Mavi & Sharpe, 2000) clearly shows that students benefit from high expectations (Mavi & Sharpe, 2000, para. 15). We are all individuals with our own unique abilities. I will never be an impressive artist, but I can make progress to the best of my ability. Authors Hasan and Sharpe (2000) sum it up nicely, "Clearly defining success in terms of individual progress is one means to avoiding inappropriately placed standards; standards which may act to drive low expectancies placed on some students" (Hasan & Sharpe, 2000, para. 15). Having high expectations for all students does not mean that we expect all students to accomplish the same goals. We expect students to reach their own potential. Teachers can help students obtain their goals by maintaining high expectations for all.

References

Brown, K., & Medway, F. J. School climate and teacher beliefs in a school effectively serving poor South Carolina (USA) African-American students: A case study. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ756898). Retrieved from ERIC database.

Elmore, R. F. What (so-called) low-performing schools can teach (so-called) high-performing schools. Journal of Staff Development v. 27 no. 2 (Spring 2006) p. 43-5 Retrieved from Education full text database.

Flores, A. Examining Disparities in Mathematics Education: Achievement Gap or Opportunity Gap? The High School Journal v. 91 no. 1 (October/November 2007) p. 29-42. Retrieved from Education full text database.

Gonder, P. Getting kids out of the muddle of middle-ability education [excerpt from Caught in the middle]. The Education Digest v. 59 (September 1993) p. 18-22. Retrieved from Education full text database.

Kolb, K. J., & Jussim, L. Teacher expectations and underachieving gifted children. Roeper Review v. 17 (September 1994) p. 26-30. Retrieved from Education full text database.

Learning opportunities for your child through alternate assessments. (2007). [Brochure] Quenemoen, R. & Thurlow, M.: Authors.

Lindley, H. A. & Keithley, M. Gender expectations and student achievement [GESA Program for professional development]. Roeper Review v. 13 (June 1991) p. 213-15. Retrieved from Education full text database.

Mavi, H. F. & Sharpe, Tom. Reviewing the literature on teacher and coach expectations with implications for future research and practice. The Physical Educator v. 57 no. 3 (Fall 2000) p. 161-8

McGrew, K. S., & Evans, J. (2003) Expectations for students with cognitive disabilities: Is the cup half empty or half full? Can the cup flow over? (Synthesis Report 55). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, National Center on Educational Outcomes. Retrieved from http://education.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Synthesis55.html

Pygmalion effect. (2008, January 17). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 29, 2008, from http://en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pygmalion_effect&oldid=184943227

Rubie-Davies, C. M. Teacher Expectations and Student Self-Perceptions: Exploring Relationships. Psychology in the Schools v. 43 no. 5 (May 2006) p. 537-52. Retrieved from Education full text database.

Self-fulfilling prophecy. (2008, February 2). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 22:32, February 3, 2008, from http://en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Self-fulfilling_prophecy&oldid=188628277

Tauber, Robert T. (1998) Good or bad, what teachers expect from students they generally get! ERIC Digest (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 426985). Retrieved from ERIC database.

Bamburg, Jerry. Raising Expectations To Improve Student Learning. Oak Brook, Illinois: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1994. 33 pages. ED378 290. Retrieved April 17, 2008, fromwww.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/...shp/le0bam.htm

This reference includes all of the information give in Kathleen’s article, but one topic that should be explained is teacher efficacy. It is important for teachers to have expectations for their own performance as well as the expectations of the students. One of the difficulties that teachers run into is the number of goals they want to accomplish with such little time that they have. To overcome that issue, teachers simplify their efforts on the goals that they feel is the most important. This issue leads to important differences in the student’s achievement. This topic contributes to Kathleen’s article because it is important to know that teacher’s expectations also rely on the expectations of their students and their performance in the classroom. “Intellectual and professional potential of teachers has been drastically underestimated by the education community as a result of the same mindset that has caused teachers to underestimate the intellectual potential of their students” (Hilliard, A. (1991). Do we have the will to educate all children?, Educational Leadership, 49(1), 31-36).


This page titled 5.6: What is the effect of having high expectations for students? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.


5.7: How can teachers continue to learn throughout life?

by Christa Portlock

“Give a man a fish, feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish; feed him for a lifetime.” The founder of Taoism, Lao Tzu, spoke these words over 2000 years ago. (Smith, xi) Education is similar to this principle. For centuries students were “fed” information and taught to memorize facts, in the hope they would retain a portion of what was taught. Today it isn’t enough just to feed information to students. Our world is changing so fast that new information becomes available faster than it can be taught. If a nation wants to keep pace with this ever-changing world, then learning can’t stop at graduation. Students as well as teachers must learn “how to fish” for knowledge by becoming life long learners. Teachers can become life-long learners by realizing and acknowledging that life long-learning is a necessity; by learning to keep up with changes through personal and professional development; and by teaching with passion, inspiring young minds to see learning as something wonderful.

Figure 

5.7.1

5.7.1: Image 1, Students as well as teachers must learn "how to fish" for knowledge by becoming life long learners

Life-long Learning is a Necessity

The last century has brought about an explosion of inventions, new technologies and new information about our world and universe. Teachers have had to keep up with all the new information and knowledge. What would it be like if they hadn’t? Picture a classroom somewhere in America. The teacher has been teaching for many years; she might be in her 50’s. That means she started teaching during the 1970s. Think back about 30 years. What were American schools like then? What kind of things would you have found in her first classroom? Classrooms in those days had chalkboards and pull-down maps. Some schools had TVs, film-and overhead projectors that were shared between classes and could be rolled into the room. Calculators existed but were generally not used in the classroom. Now imagine for a minute what it would be like if this teacher had not adapted to change. What would it be like if she had buried herself in her classroom, not furthered her learning, not embraced all the new technologies, events and discoveries? If she had not been a life-long learner, what would she have missed? What would she not have learned, embraced, and passed on to students? Think of the things that have happened in the past 35 years. She would have missed, among other things, the hostage crisis in the late 70’s, Presidents coming and going, this country at war more than once, the attack of 9/11. She would not have seen the Soviet Union collapse, would not have heard of Aids or global warming. She would not have known much, if anything, about DNA. She wouldn’t know how to use a personal computer, the internet or cell phones. It is easy to see that if we stand still the world will pass us by. We live in a global society that is changing at breathtaking speed. We need to adapt and change. Life-long learning is a necessity for everyone.

Personal and Professional Development

In order to keep up with our changing environment and to stay informed, teachers make a conscious effort to continue learning. They will take part in professional training through the school district or through classes taken at universities. Most teachers read books and professional journals to keep up with the newest information about child development. They read magazines, newspapers, watch the news and surf the internet to keep up with changes that happen around the world. Teachers attend workshops to keep up with technology, the newest teaching strategies, and classroom management techniques. They are eager to take in new information about our world and look for ways to improve their teaching practices in the classroom. Another way a teacher can improve and move forward is to learn more about him or herself. In the book Those Who can, Teach by Ryan Cooper, a teacher is likened to a sculptor who “begins with a vision of what he or she wants to be and then sets to work transforming the vision into a reality… The process requires an understanding of … self … it takes long hours of chipping away and then smoothing the surfaces… To be a teacher, particularly a teacher who is continuously moving forward, is a lifelong commitment …” (Cooper, 473) A sculptor needs time, patience and the ability to see beyond what is easily visible on the surface to create his work of art. A teacher uses those same qualities, just like a sculptor, to patiently reflect and look deep within him- or herself to see where changes could be made. At the end of a day it is helpful for a teacher to think deeply about the events of that day, to analyze him- or herself and therefore better understand and react to situations in the future. It is good to take time to remember happy events, a chance to feel content about good things that may have happened. Reflection can help a person to learn and adjust to his or her environment. As previously discussed, teachers have to become life-long learners and have to adjust to keep up with our ever-changing world through personal and professional development. They are however, not the only ones who need to keep pace with new information and technology. One of the reasons it is so important for teachers to stay informed, is so they can pass this new knowledge and information on to students.

Teaching with Passion

Note

If we can have “students see our passions – it gives them proof that we enjoy learning.” (Thomas, 2007)

Children have a sense of wonder when they are young. “Keeping the joy in learning should be a priority of every school and every teacher.” (Warner, 2006)If children can keep their sense of excitement about the world, they will love to learn and that original excitement and love of learning will most likely stay with them for life. To help keep the excitement alive, teachers aim to inspire young minds. They want their students to see how much fun learning can be. In the article “A Return to Community: Inquiry in Action” Ann H. MacKenzie wrote: “Life-long learning implies a buy-in curiosity about life... an insatiable desire to be alive in ‘the now, the future,’ and immersed in the teeming life surrounding us every moment.” (Thomas, 2007) If we can have “students see our passions – it gives them proof that we enjoy learning.” (Thomas, 2007) It is wonderful to see the sparks when students understand a concept and take off excited with their new-found knowledge. “We must model that inquisitiveness in the classrooms. Our students must see us involved in our own life-long learning… Watch us passionately immerse ourselves in our own curiosities.” (MacKenzie)

When teachers model excitement about learning, students will see learning as something positive to be imitated. In turn they will hopefully become life-long learners themselves. Rafe Esquinth wrote an inspiring book entitled Teach Like Your Hair’s on Fire. He teaches in a “rough” Los Angeles neighborhood and found a way to inspire his students to learn, imagine, and eventually succeed in school. Esquinth relates a story about a day that didn’t start out well. In the course of that day he became so involved in teaching that unbeknownst to him, his hair caught on fire during an experiment. He was so involved in teaching, he didn’t even notice. That day he realized that the key to teaching was to become absorbed and excited about learning. He was determined from then on to make his goal to “teach like his hair is on fire”. (Esquinth, xii) If we can convey to students excitement about a subject, about learning, and about life we will teach as if our “hair is on fire”. That kind of excitement will inspire children to become life-long learners.

Note

“We must model that inquisitiveness in the classrooms. Our students must see us involved in our own life-long learning… Watch us passionately immerse ourselves in our own curiosities.” (MacKenzie)

Conclusion

As individuals and as citizens of a global economy we have to keep pace with our world. We must continue to learn and then pass our knowledge and love of learning on to the next generation. We have to inspire the next generation to find joy in continuous learning so that, even after leaving school, students will be prepared for this ever-changing world, ready to embrace a world filled with new, exciting things, ready to investigate and ready to keep learning, never giving up on their quest for knowledge. A fish is only one meal… we want to teach students to be excited about learning, excited about fishing for information; we want to give them the tools to become life-long fishermen for knowledge.

Reaction Paper

My Thoughts About Life-long Learning

by Christa Portlock

Investigating life-long learning and what it means made me think about what it means to me as a student and as a prospective future teacher. To me the world has always been a very interesting, exciting, and beautiful place to investigate and to learn about. I can’t imagine what my life would be like without that wonder and appreciation about learning new things. Life is so much more stimulating, rich and pleasurable when we engage our minds, use our imagination and fill our hearts with the beauty that surrounds us. I would love to pass that excitement on to someone else. It would be exciting to spark the imagination of children and watch them find the same joy that I have always felt when learning something new. I know I have much to learn to be able to know how to best pass on knowledge, as well as excitement about learning. I am on a learning quest right now. I want to learn how to become that teacher who can create those sparks that light up a child’s eyes and light his or her path through life with inquisitiveness and excitement. I will spend the next few years in school learning all I can. I have spent much time in classrooms in the past, but from this time on I will be spending time in the classroom watching with different eyes. I will have chances to observe experienced teachers. I will spend time reading about teachers that were able to make sparks and even small miracles happen, like Helen Keller. I know, however, that this is just the beginning of my journey. Most of my learning about teaching will come through the time spent in the classroom. I want to venture and say that many of my most profound lessons will be taught to me by my future students without them even knowing they’ve been teaching me. I am looking forward to those lessons and am excited about what is to come. As a teacher I will continue to learn. I will take advantage of the training opportunities offered to me and learn individually as well. I hope I will have the opportunity to work with a mentor, learning through observation. I am excited about all the new things to learn and embrace. Life-long learning goes beyond the time spent at school; it goes beyond the classroom and beyond the teaching years. Life-long learning is an adventurous journey through life. Keeping the mind active has enormous health benefits, physically, mentally and spiritually. Life-long learning has the ability to shape, influence, and determine the future. It has the ability to influence mankind’s achievements, technologies, and ultimately our destination through individuals who never stand still and make life-long learning their quest that fuels their investigations. Who knows what sparks will fly when the imagination soars in our future classrooms? I am determined to find out!

Essay Question

How can a teacher be likened to a sculptor?

Bibliography

Cooper, Ryan (2007). Those Who Can, Teach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company

Esquith, Rafe (2007). Teach like your hair is on fire. New York, NY: Penguin Group

MacKenzie, A. (2006, November). A Return to the Community: Inquiry in Action. American Biology Teacher, pp. 518, 519. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from Education Research Complete Database. search.ebscohost.com/login.aspc?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23771678&site=ehost-live

Smith, Rick (2004). Conscious classroom management. San Rafael, CA: Conscious Teaching Publications.

Thomas, J. (2007, November). Teaching with Passion. Education Digest, 73(3), 63-65. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from Education Research Complete database. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=27518663&site=ehost-live

Warner, S. (2006, April 1). Keeping Joy in Technology Education. Technology Teacher, 65(7), 6. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ747900) Retrieved February 2, 2008,fromERICdatabase .http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.vccs.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ747900&site=ehost-live


This page titled 5.7: How can teachers continue to learn throughout life? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.


End of Chapter Summary

This chapter comprehensively explores various educational concepts and their implications in modern teaching and learning environments. It begins with understanding the role of teachers' expectations in shaping student performance, highlighting the Pygmalion effect and the impact of self-fulfilling prophecies. 

End of Chapter Discussions/Exercises 


This text is a remixed OER licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share and Share a like 4.0 International License.