2.1: What are the educational milestones of the 17th and 18th centuries?

by Kim Rodriguez

Education in the 17th and 18th centuries was influenced primarily by theologians, philosophers, and government which included the pedagogies of Sir Francis Bacon of England, Wolfgang Ratke of Germany, René Descartes of France, Jean-Jacques Rousseau of Switzerland, John Comenius (a.k.a. Komensky) of Moravia, and John Locke of England. There were other groups of teachers that impacted education reform during this period such as the Jesuits, the Oratorians, and the Puritan reformers; however, discussion for this text will focus on the individuals who have made an impact on education during this Age of Enlightenment. Ideologies and methodologies were set forth and established as a result of these influences, many of which are in practice today. For example, Comenius's ideas for separating students into three levels of schooling based on age is popularly structured in today's school systems. We have elementary, middle, and high school, as well as higher learning in colleges. The milestones that were made have changed the way education is perceived and the way in which teaching is conducted with great thought aimed towards what is best for the student to become a contributing member of society.

Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626)

Francis Bacon, Viscount St. Alban, son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by lisby1 This work is marked as being in the public domain

NoteKnowledge is power.—Nam et ipsa scientia potestas est - Sir Francis Bacon

Bacon observed that the educators of his time were close-minded and ineffective because they presented themselves as orators of empty rhetoric rather than teachers of factual scientific information based on proven theory. His approach to teaching included a method he called empiricism, "the doctrine that knowledge derives from experience" (Merriam-Webster). Bacon argued that pupils need to be prepared for life through proper schooling so that they would be better able to function within, and contribute to, their society. He believed that the science of life and the use of inductive reasoning would best prepare a person for nearly all aspects of living. One form of inductive reasoning and the empirical method that we use today is the Scientific Method, based largely on Bacon's philosophies of observing, studying, and analyzing factual data rather than relying on the ideas and guesswork of our own or others. The Scientific Method was originally named for him and is sometimes referred to as the Baconian Method (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

091717-34-Descartes-Philosophy | by The free media repository. | CC BY-SA 2.5 license

I think- therefore, I am (cogito ergo sum) - Rene Descartes

Descartes had a different approach in mind for teaching and learning than Sir Francis Bacon's empiricist ideas. Unlike the analytically structured approach, he believed that the basis for learning originates from human reasoning which must be the foundation for all critical thinking and analytical practices. Arguably, one of his greatest achievements is his work, La géométrie. Descartes La géométrie explains how to apply algebraic computations to geometry, also known as Cartesian geometry today (O'Connor, Robertson). His work focuses on these major points:

1. First step towards a theory of invarients

2. Algebra makes it possible ro recognize problems in geometry

3. Algebra imports into geometry the principles of division and hierarchy method

4. Geometrical solvability is not possible without algebra

(O'Connor, Robertson)

René Descartes also the invented the way we plot points on a graph. This method is called the Cartesian Coordinate System, which is used the same way all over the world for purposes of mapping and graphing by plotting points (plot points horizontally first, vertically second). Although Descartes might be best known as a great philosopher, his most notable achievements are in the field of mathematics and much of his math theory (as shown in the table above) is in use today.

Note

Descartes awakened late at 11:00 each morning for most of his life due to an undetermined illness; however, during his stay with Queen Christina of Sweden he was requested to draw tangents each morning at 5:00. After a few months in this environment, cold and early morning awakenings, he died of pneumonia (O'Connor, Robertson).

John Comenius (Jan Komensky) (1592-1670)

"John Amos Comenius" by seriykotik1970 is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. 

Not...the whole of the human race may become educated, men of all ages, all conditions, both sexes and all nations. - Comenius

The above quote comes from Comenius's work Pampaedia, in which he emphasized the belief that everyone should be educated to fulfill their lives, an ideal he called Pansophism meaning universal wisdom. Comenius, once a bishop of the Moravian Church, developed this philosophy shortly after escaping "religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands" (Gutek). Comenius was a leading philosopher of education during this period. He proposed the segregation of schools according to age and grade levels. At seven to 12, pupils would enter a "vernacular school" (Gutek) where there would be six different classes, one for each age. During this time the pupil would learn "religion, ethics, diction, reading, writing, math, music, economy, civics, history, geography, and handicraft" (Encyclopædia Britannica). In these lower levels, the pupil would hone his/her imaginative and memorization skills. At 13-18, pupils would learn Latin, i.e. grammar. Courses involving language arts and the sciences would be further studied. At 19-24, the pupil would continue on to higher education at a university which Comenius believed each province should establish. In 1657, Comenius's methods were incorporated into The Great Didactic which emphasizes two schools of thought: the Arts and the Sciences. Additional publications by Comenius were The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), which was used to teach pupils Latin from their native language; also Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658), which was a picture book for young readers. Comenius believed that children learned best through sensory perceptions and pictures that identified with labeled objects. Today, classes that are grouped by age, two primary schools of thought (arts and sciences), and the use of illustrated children's books to promote literacy is a nearly universal ideal.

John Locke (1632-1704)

"John Locke, philosopher" by lisby1 is marked with Public Domain Mark 1.0 

Let us then suppose the Mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas; How comes it to be furnished...? To this I answer, in one word, From Experience: In that, all our Knowledge is founded; and from that it ultimately derives it self. - John Locke

The above quote comes from Locke's An Essay of Understanding. His main idea was that humans are born with minds that are "blank slates - tabula rasa, and empty of ideas" (Gutek). Locke believed that the human mind should entertain initial thoughts that should progress and yield to complicated thoughts and ideas. Locke believed that a person must experience what he/she learns from life situations. His writings were very important during the Age of Enlightenment because his thoughts focused not only on education during that era, but also government. State education was a major concern for philosophers during that period and Locke's influence in politics may have helped pave the way for his philosophies to take root in government planning for education.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

"Portrait de Jean-Jacques Rousseau (détail)" by zigazou76 is licensed under CC BY 2.0. 

NoteI hate books; they only teach us to talk about things we know nothing about. - Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau helped bring about an educational revolution in France with his work "Emile". In this book Rousseau talks about how children should be allowed to be outside in the sunlight playing; this is where they learn the best. He also states that children have stages of development as they grow and education should coincide with them. Before age 12 a child is limited in the complex thought so they should be taught simply. Between ages 12 and 16 reason starts to develop and by age 16 children become young adults; young adults should be taught a trade such as masonry or carpentry. A child that grows up in this fashion will have the best possibility to develop to his full potential. Rousseau also says that education begins at home and parents should not preach but lead by example. For the most part Rousseau believes that children should make their own decisions and their educators should be there for support.

Educating the Masses during the Age of Enlightenment

During this era, philosophers and educators believed that deductive and inductive reasoning was paramount in the teacher and learning process. Though most of the 17th and 18th century pedagogies originate in Europe, these ideas made a great impact on influential Americans such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, who both saw the importance of scientific, critical, and exploratory thought, as well as "a civic education" (Gutek). So given all of these ideologies, many of which are closely aligned to one another in some way, how did some leaders of nations comply? Below are some examples of attempts that were made at that time.

In Prussia: Mandatory schooling for all children ages 5–14 was implemented under the regime of Frederick the Great of Prussia. His minister was Freiherr von Zedlitz who "supported the founding of new schools and the centralization of school administration under an Oberschulkollegium, or national board of education (1787)" (Encyclopædia Britannica).

In Russia: Catherine II of Russia attempted to nationalize education. She issued an education act in 1786 which called for two years of study in district schools followed by five years of study in provincial schools. Religious instruction was absent from these schools. Unfortunately, only half of the towns had the schools (approximately 250 towns). Alexander I implemented a system of education that was free and controlled by the state, which led all the way through the university level. However, years later these reforms came under re-consideration by conservatives.

In America: Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, well-known Francophiles and ambassadors to France, embraced and incorporated the new ideas which were implemented in the European countries as much as possible and helped influence a strong foundation for education in America. Compulsory education became paramount in early America. Although most school instruction was initially deeply based on religious modules from Puritanical influences, the later political separation of church and state (First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States - Article [1] - [1]) removed religious instruction from state supported schools.

We take for granted that compulsory schooling in our world today is the norm; however, evidence indicates that nearly 50% of all children in the world (ages 6-18) do not attend school (Gutek). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) strives to help all children in the world to attend school and eradicate illiteracy. While much success has been achieved by such organizations, there is still much to be done.

Note

Thomas Jefferson declared that John Locke, Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton were the "three greatest men the world had ever produced" (Peterson, 1236).

Sources

Bartlett, J. Familiar Quotations, 10th ed. (1919) [2]

European education in 17th and 18th centuries. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: [3]

O'Connor, J.J. & Robertson, E.F. (1997). "Rene Descartes." Retrieved January 29, 2008, from [4]

Boas, G. (1937). "The Ninth International Congress of Philosophy and the Second International Congress of Esthetics and of the Science of Art." The Journal of Philosophy,34 (21): 561-574. [5]

Stimson, D. (1935). "Comenius and the Invisible College." Isis, 23 (2): 373-388. [6]

Gutek, G. (2007). "History of Education," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia. [7]

Peterson, M. (ed.) (1984). Thomas Jefferson: Writings. Literary Classics of the United States, New York.

United States Congress. [8]

Lewis, Hackett. (1992). "The European Dream Of Progress And Enlightenment". Retrieved April 20, 2008, from history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm

For simple definitions, [www.m-w.com]

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2.2: What are the educational milestones of the 19th century?

by Amber Showalter

Learning Objectives

1. Students should be able to identify the Common School Period and its goals.

2. Students should be able to identify two of the major innovators of education in the 19th century.

INTRODUCTION

The 19th century encompassed many changes in America. One change in particular that influenced our education system was the beginning of the public school system. This movement made education available to the masses. Reformers and education innovators of the time worked tirelessly to make education public instead of private, free, and state maintained. In this article we will review the era of educational history known as the "common school movement, or the "common school period". We will also discuss two of the major educational innovators that were integral in developing the first public schools, or common schools and their curriculum.

THE COMMON SCHOOL PERIOD

The years 1830 until 1872 are known as the "common school movement" or the "common school period." During this period in history, great changes were made in public schooling in nearly every state of the union. The goals of the common school movement were to provide a free education for white children, to train and educate teachers, and to establish state control over public schools (Church, 1976). Prior to common schools, the closest thing to public schools were the schools that existed in some of the northern British colonies. They often only lasted for 10 –12 weeks per year, favored boys, and were not free. As a result, race, gender, and family wealth greatly influenced education (Stone, 2001). There were many arguments in defense of the common school. As the immigrant population grew in the northern states during this period, the common school was used to “Americanize” all foreigners (Payne). Yet another argument for common schools was from advocates like Horace Mann. Mann believed that a common education for all meant that society in general would be more productive and prosperous. He once wrote that education “can raise more abundant harvests, and multiply the conveniences of domestic life;...it can build, transport, manufacture, mine, navigate, fortify;...a single new idea is often worth more to an individual than a hundred workmen” (Church, 1976, p. 66). A typical day in a common school would begin around 8:45 a.m. and last until 4 p.m. Usually breaks were taken for recess and for lunch. The children learned from textbooks such as McGuffey Readers and Webster’s American Spelling Book. A teacher might receive $25 a month as salary and would stay with families in the surrounding areas (Huntington, 2005).

HORACE MANN

Horace Mann was born in Franklin, Massachusetts in 1796. His education began in a one-room schoolhouse and continued until he reached Brown University. He later studied law and found himself in the political arena. He was soon appointed to the newly formed Massachusetts State Board of Education in the position of Secretary. He served as Secretary from 1837 until 1848 (Sass, 2008). Mann became known as the “Father of the Common School” (Stone, 2001). He believed that education was a universal right for all. Everyone should have the opportunity to attend school no matter what their social class or income may be. Mann also advocated for a longer school year and the funding of schools to be the responsibility of the state instead of the individual. He helped establish laws for compulsory attendance and these laws were in every state by 1918 (Payne). Mann also advocated for a more trained and professional teacher. Training institutions called normal schools were established for teachers. The first public normal school was opened in 1839 (Church, 1976). Mann knew that the key to elevating the standard of learning was to elevate the standards in which the teachers were trained. He sought to make teaching a profession (Stone, 2001)

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PROFESSOR WILLIAM HOLMES MCGUFFEY

One of the key problems for educational reformers during the 19th century, was the creation of a curriculum. A small publishing company called Truman and Smith played a vital role in the first textbooks for American children. Truman and Smith wanted to sell textbooks, but first they had to find someone to write these books. Their search ended with William McGuffey (Payne, The McGuffey Readers). McGuffey had already published his first reader in 1841 that introduced children to his ethical code. The book contained fifty-five lessons and the child modeled in this book was prompt, good, kind, honest and truthful (Payne, The McGuffey Readers). The child depicted in the McGuffey Readers was white and Protestant. The second reader appeared almost simultaneously with the first. It had eighty-five lessons, sixteen pictures, and one hundred sixty pages. There were lessons on a multitude of topics. Children learned about history, biology, and even table manners (Payne, The McGuffey Readers). The secular tone of the McGuffey Reader was unlike any of the other Puritan texts from that era (Sass, 2008). Reformers believed that the moral training of children occurred hand in hand with their academic training. The McGuffey Readers provided the necessary lessons in conjunction with a moral undertone. McGuffey Readers were called “eclectic readers” because they were written from a number of sources. They were considered remarkable literary works and had great influence (Payne). The McGuffey Readers have sold over 100 million copies since 1836 (Church, 1976).

Note

"The following stanza is copied from page 61 of the edition of 1844 to illustrate the method of presenting words:

I like to see a lit-tle dog, And pat him on the head; So pret-ti-ly he wags his tail When-ev-er he is fed."

(Vail, 1911, p. 6)

"File:Grave of William Holmes McGuffey.jpg" by Mooeena is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. 

CONCLUSION

The 19th century was a turning point in American education. The beginning of public schools, school reform and state funding were just a few of these changes. Innovators and reformers sought to make education available to the masses and not just to the wealthy and privileged. Innovators and reformers like Horace Mann and William Holmes McGuffey made it possible for common schools to establish themselves as the first public schools in the nation. This era and its innovators paved the way for our public school system as we know it today.

CITATIONS

Church, Robert (1976). Education in the United States, an interpretive history. New York: The Free Press.

Huntington, Tom (April 2005). School days. Civil War Times, 44(1),14

Payne, Shannon (No Date Posted). The history of education in America. Retrieved on February 4, 2009 from www.chesapeake.edu/library/EDU_101/eduhist_19thC.asp

Payne, Shannon (No Date Posted). The mcguffey readers. Retrieved on February 9, 2009 from http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/mcguffey.html

Sass, Edward, Ed.D (2008). American educational history: a hypertext timeline. College of Saint Benedict/Saint John’s University, Retrieved on February 4, 2009 from http://www.cloudnet.com/~edrbsass/educationhistorytimeline.html

Stone Lantern Films (2001). School: the story of American public education. Presented by KCET/Hollywood. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from www.pbs.org/kcet/publicshool/innovators/mann.html

Stone Lantern Films (2001). School: the story of American public education. Presented by KCET/Hollywood. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from www.pbs.org/kcet/publicshool/photo_gallery/photo1.html

Vail, Henry H. (1911). A history of the mcguffey readers. Cleveland: The Burrow Brothers Co., Retrieved on February 9, 2009 from www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/5/5/7/15577/15577-h/15577-h.htm

2.3: What are the educational milestones of the 20th century?

by Veronica Montalvo

INTRODUCTION AND THE GROWTH OF EDUCATION

In the United States, the start of the twentieth century marked a movement towards the inclusion of more people than ever into the educational system. In 1900, close to six percent of teenagers graduated from high school (Thattai, 2001). States attempted to increase that number by making that goal more accessible through the construction of more high schools in both urban and rural localities (Wolfe, 2001). Laws were passed that made school mandatory for children until elementary school; later it became obligatory until the child became sixteen years old (Thattai, 2001). However, a good and equal education was not yet widely available to all Americans. Marginalized groups hovered at the fringes of the educational system. African-Americans received unequal and inferior educations as compared to that of whites, as did other minorities and students with limited-English-proficiency (LEP). Women were discriminated against, as well as the handicapped, in being fully included in the educational system. Major developments in the twentieth-century education system include various rulings and acts that promoted a fair and equal education for Americans that had been neglected and marginalized.

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G.I. BILL of 1944

Established in 1944, the G.I. Bill was designed to provide assistance to veterans returning from World War II. Although the educational provisions within the Bill were originally intended as “another form of unemployment relief,” the educational system experienced a drastic change in its perception by Americans (Clark, 1998, p. 173). Prior to the influx of veterans in colleges and universities, a college education was perceived as being a privilege of the wealthy and a mark of high status. The veterans returning from WWII were viewed as everyday men, and to see and hear about them going to college broke down that perception and made the dream of a college education more of a reality for all Americans (Clark, 1998). According to Hess and McGuinn (2002), “Education gained a new prominence after World War II” (p. 76). More students were graduating from high school and going to college after the G.I. Bill passed (Hess and McGuinn, 2002).

Aside from changing the perception of college education and increasing enrollments, the G.I. Bill led to the growth of community colleges and vocational schools (Wolfe, 2001). The 2.2 million veterans utilizing the educational benefits of the G.I. Bill (Bound and Turner, 2002) demanded a curriculum with classes more similar to what they had been exposed to in the military. Practicality was a vital aspect in their desired education, and schools responded by creating vocational programs to suit their needs (Clark, 1998). The G.I. Bill impacted future generations by making college more accessible to the average citizen and by causing the expansion of the college curriculum.

BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION, 1954

In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education. The decision marked the beginning of more educational opportunities for African-Americans, but these opportunities were still severely limited. The Supreme Court declared that schools must desegregate, but did not make a deadline or any guidelines as to when it must be complete (Carson, 2004). A decade after the decision, less than 10% of black students were attending an integrated school (Ravitch, 2000). Throughout the ‘60s and ‘70s, the government used funds to force schools to desegregate or risk losing their funding (Carper, 2001), and by 1980, the practice of legal segregation for the most part had ended (Thattai, 2001).

Despite the long delay in achieving the goal of desegregation, the message that Brown delivered impacted the educational system and future policy in civil rights (Carson, 2004). Brown revealed the potential for other minority groups to begin the struggle for equal educational access (Gándara, Moran, and García, 2004). Equal and fair education began to be viewed as “the birthright of a free citizenry” (Hess and McGuinn, 2002, pp. 76–77), and more groups began demanding that right.

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ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION ACT OF 1965

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 sought to equalize the education opportunities for all children. As the start of federal government grants to states for education (Hess and McGuinn, 2000), the law attempted “to compensate in some sense for disadvantages due to inequities in the social system” (Wolfe, 2001). President Johnson hoped that increasing and equalizing education for all children would one day rid the country of poverty (Easley, 2005). Funds were provided to the states for services for poor and minority students (Baker, 2001) as well as for “school library resources, textbooks, and other instructional materials for school children” (Digest of Education Statistics, 2006). In 1967, Title VII authorized grants to be given for programs for LEP students (Baker, 2001). More than giving funds for different programs for the poor and minorities, ESEA along with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 aided in providing funds for the desegregation of southern schools who had refused to do so (Ravitch, 2000), more than a decade after the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. ESEA served to make an equal education more obtainable for all classes and races.

TITLE IX OF 1972

The place of women within the educational system was limited in terms of opportunities and the material being taught. The Civil Rights Movement during the ‘60s and ‘70s led women to protest more and demand equality in education. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 included the requirement that grants be given to the states in order for them to work towards that gender equality in education, and in 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments was passed (Marshall, 2002). Title IX required that there be gender equality in schools that received money from the government and that “curricula should not stereotype girls’ and boys’ interests and careers” (Marshall, 2002, p. 712). In spite of the worthwhile objectives of Title IX, it was a feeble mandate. No penalties existed for schools that refused to comply, and a way to even supervise them was not set up until a quarter of the century after the passage of Title IX (Marshall, 2002).

In 1974, the Women’s Educational Equity Act (WEEA) was passed. This act provided a financial backbone to Title IX with funds granted to the schools and agencies in order to fulfill the goals of Title IX (Women’s Educational Equity). Title IX and WEEA made great strides in opening up more doors to education for women in the twentieth century.

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INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES ACT OF 1975

The place of handicapped children in schools improved in the twentieth century. Almost five percent of students have a mental disability (Gunning, 2008), and with the 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act, they are able to receive a better education (Keyes, Hanley-Maxwell, and Capper, 1999). The name later changed to the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), but the goal of guaranteeing an education to disabled students remained the same (Keyes, Hanley-Maxwell, and Capper, 1999). A “free appropriate public education” or FAPE requires that “special education and related services are provided at public expense” (McLaughlin and Thurlow, 2003, p. 436). Disabled children must be placed in the least restrictive environment possible, meaning that their educational environment is as close to that of their nondisabled classmates as possible (Keyes, Hanley-Maxwell, and Capper, 1999). Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) are used to monitor the learning disabled student’s progress, and in 1997, assessments became mandatory for disabled students in order to make the schools more accountable for the students’ progress (McLaughlin and Thurlow, 2003). If necessary, accommodations in the assessments may be used (Gunning, 2008). Thanks to IDEA, more disabled students are graduating than if IDEA had not been passed (Special Education and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act).

CONCLUSION

The twentieth century achieved a great deal in terms of including more groups that had been previously excluded or marginalized. A great deal still remains to be done in making education truly equal and accessible to every American, but the foundation has been laid for more work in the twenty-first century. Each American deserves to have equal educational opportunities, and as society progresses and more policies are created, that goal may be achievable.

References

Baker, B. D. (2001). Living on the edge of state school-funding policies: the plight of at-risk, limited-English-proficient, and gifted children. Educational Policy, 15, 699-723.

Bound, J. and S. Turner. (2002). Going to war and going to college: did World War II and the G.I. Bill increase educational attainment for returning veterans? Journal of Labor Economics, 20:4, 784-815.

Carper, J. C. (2001). The changing landscape of U.S. education. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 37 no3, 106-110.

Carson, C. (2004). Two cheers for Brown v. Board of Education. The Journal of American History, 9:1, n.p.

Clark, D. A. (1998). “The two Joes meet—Joe College, Joe Veteran”: the G.I. Bill, college education, and postwar American culture. History of Education Quarterly,38 no2, 165-189.

Digest of Educational Statistics: Chapter 4 Federal Programs for Education and Related Activities. 2006. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from Department of Education web site: http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d06/ch_4.asp.

Easley II, J. (2005). The political tension of education as a public good: the voice of a Martin Luther King, Jr., scholar. Education and Urban Society, 37, 490-505.

Gándara, P., R. Moran, E. Garcia. (2004). Legacy of Brown: Lau and language policy in the United States. Review of Research in Education, 28, 27-46.

Gunning, T. G. (2008). Creating literacy instruction for all students (6th ed.). New York City, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

Hess, F. M. and P. J. McGuinn. (2002). Seeking the mantle of “opportunity”: presidential politics and the educational metaphor, 1964-2000. Educational Policy, 16, 72-95.

Keyes, M. W., C. Hanley-Maxwell, and C. A. Capper. “Sprirituality? It’s the core of my leadership”: empowering leadership in an inclusive elementary school. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35,203-237.

Marshall, C. (2002). Teacher unions and gender equity policy for education. Educational Policy, 16, 707-730.

McLaughlin, M. J. and M. Thurlow. (2003). Educational accountability and students with disabilities: issues and challenges. Educational Policy, 17, 431-451.

Ravitch, D. (2000). Left back: a century of battles over school reform. New York City, NY: Touchstone.

Special Education and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. (n.d.). Retrieved February 1, 2008 from National Education Association Web site: www.nea.org/specialed/index.html?mode.

Thattai, D. (2001, November). A history of public education in the United States. Journal of Literacy and Education in Developing Societies,1:2. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from www.servintfree.net/~aidmn-ejournal/.

Wolfe, M. P. (2001). Reflections on the most important educational developments of the 20th century: Kappa Delta Pi laureates. The Educational Forum, 65 no2, 146-163.

Women’s Educational Equity. (n.d.). Retrieved February 1, 2008 from Department of Education Web site: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/Biennial/125.html.

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2.4: What are the educational milestones of the 21st century?

by: Jim Eason

Teaching Technology: An Introduction

Modern technology is advancing at a blistering pace. New innovations are available to the public so quickly that tech gadgets are obsolete within a year. Today’s society is practically run by computers and other technologies. It is very important that we, as educators, prepare students for the real life challenges that lie ahead for them upon graduating high school and even university. New collaborative learning environments must also be incorporated to help them achieve success. Nearly every job on the planet requires technological knowledge. “To be able to compete for these positions, workers must have viable technology skills, and the educational system must prepare students for this work” (Thomas, 2007, p. 4). We can't expect students to learn these skills on their own. Educators must instill proper techniques at early ages to make sure they are ready for the workforce.

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The Educator’s Role

Note

Teacher education programs in the United States are trying to equip tomorrow's teachers with the technology skills needed to impact learning in the classroom. Learning the skills is not enough - teachers must learn how to integrate these skills in the classroom (Graham, Culatta, & Pratt, 2004, p. 127).

Modern teaching is much different from the methods used in years past. We must adapt our teaching to the way students learn. As students learn about computers at younger and younger ages, it is important that the educator is competent enough to teach to their level of learning. “Teacher education programs in the United States are trying to equip tomorrow’s teachers with the technology skills needed to impact learning in the classroom” (Graham, Culatta, & Pratt, 2004, p. 127). This article contends further that learning the skills is not enough- teachers must learn how to integrate these skills in the classroom (Graham et al., p. 127). This article is emphasizing that it is our job to learn this technology, and in turn, relay this knowledge to the student.

Every school has some form of technology available for teacher use. These range anywhere from an overhead and a VCR to network connected classrooms with Smart Board technology. There are many strategies to implement technology. Students use the Internet to do research or to expand learning of certain topics. This technology “allows students to have more control over their own learning, to think analytically and critically and to work collaboratively” (Kosakowski, 1998).

Repetition is also an imperative use of this technology. Lessons can be delivered using a variety of sources. Teachers can present material, and then follow up with online games and quizzes. Regular and special education classes benefit from this type of learning. Students usually learn more, and more rapidly (Kosakowski, 1998).

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is another method of teaching considered vital to today’s educational environment. Students can be put into small groups to complete certain tasks. “Cooperative learning is beneficial because knowledge is exchanged and converges through social interaction” (Weinberger, Stegmann, & Fischer, 2007, p. 416). When the grade of an entire project depends on the group as a whole, students are encouraged to share opinions and knowledge. This offers a less competitive learning environment. Weaker students or those that are less apt to share ideas openly or take part in classroom discussions are encouraged to participate. This helps build self confidence in those students. Computers are a tool that teachers can use to create their cooperative learning classroom. “Students have shown overall positive effects of learning with computer based technology on student achievement, attitudes towards learning, and self concept as compared to traditional instruction (Lou, 2001, p. 452).

Learning with Technology

It is important to note that there is a difference between learning from technology and learning with technology. Learning from technology is simply looking at a machine – whether it is a computer or an overhead projector – and gaining knowledge. Learning with technology puts the problem solving skills in the students’ hands. The technology gives them the resources they need to analyze material and draw their own conclusions. This gives them the opportunity to expand on the given lesson. This is vital to life after school. It gives them the chance to solve real world problems by “exploring, analyzing, and interpreting information” (Lou, p. 453). This doesn’t suggest that learning from technology should be avoided. Using computers for information is akin to having an expert in the classroom other than the teacher. Other benefits are “decreased instruction time, and an increase in the equity of access to quality instruction” (Lou, p. 453). This type of environment will give the teacher one on one time with the weaker students, which will keep them from falling behind in the curriculum.

"computer lab - 4th grade" by woodleywonderworks is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Teacher Perspectives on Technology

Teachers generally view technology as advantage, but there are problems associated with the desire to use technology. One such problem is availability. Many school systems have limited resources and only purchase a limited supply of technological tools. Often there are several teachers wanting to use the same tools at the same time. Another thought teachers state is that it affects their planning time. Teachers with more experience with technology themselves believe that the lesson planning time is shorter, while those with less experience with the use of technology believe it takes longer to prepare a lesson when incorporating technology. Teachers also express that students are more engaged when forms of technology is used and they gain a greater understanding of the material. The students learn the given material faster. When students have the opportunity to learn from technology, they tend to grasp the content quicker and the teacher is able to cover more material in a shorter amount of time. Technology aids in the reinforcement of content with extra practice with more "drill, practice and hands-on learning (Oncu, Delialioglu, Brown, 2008).

A (maybe not so) Fictional Look into the Future

In this section let's throw the research aside and see where all this technology can take us. We already have podcasts of class lectures. How far off will it be before this technology goes into secondary and even middle schools. I'll explain: Some university students can get a degree online - never stepping into a classroom. What about homeschool students? More and more parents are taking their children out of public and private schools and opting to teach their children themselves. What about the mothers that would like the opportunity to homeschool, but lack the knowledge or education to do it themselves? This is where podcasts come in! Parents can download lessons that their child would normally be getting at school. They can follow along with the teacher and make sure their child keeps up with the workload. He or she can take the tests at home and then the parent can submit his or her work for grading. Video conferencing is prevalent in business. It would be a great start if a student can experience this first hand in middle school. He can because, a new program could be implemented so that children from foreign countries can now learn from American schools via a video conference inside a middle school classroom. Students can be put into cooperative learning groups with a student from Russia, one from Kenya, and one in Brazil. They can break down language barriers and even learn multiple languages from communicating across the globe. Simple things like getting homework assignments from your teacher from a text message are not far off in the future if it's not here already. We already live in a global work environment. Is global education far behind? This last question will leave people debating for years to come.

Conclusion

It is imperative, as modern day educators, to adapt teaching styles to the many ways students learn. The days of just standing in front of the class to deliver material are now gone. This practice is no longer adequate. Ever changing technology has given students renewed motivation in the classroom to fill their minds with information. Teachers must also be open to learning. Most students learn early on how to use technology devices. They have access to an unlimited amount of information on the Internet. It is the responsibility of adults, especially teachers, to guide them and help them decipher what information is accurate and pertinent to their studies. Teachers must have the knowledge to be their guide in these endeavors. Students, teachers, parents, administrators, and even state and local governments must work collaboratively to ensure students are getting the quality education they deserve; an education that will prepare them for the world outside of school grounds.

References

Graham, C., Culatta, R., and Pratt, M.,(2004). Redesigning the Teacher Education Technology Course to Emphasize Integration. Computers in Schools, 21(1-2),127-148.

Kosakowski, J.,(1998).The Benefits of Information Technology Syracuse, NY: ERIC.

Lou, Y.(2001). Small Group and Individual Learning with Technology: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3),449-521.

Thomas, D.,(2007). Teaching Technology in Low Socio-economic Areas. The Technology Teacher, 67(3), 4-8.

Weinberger, A., Stegmann, K., and Fischer, F.,(2007). Knowledge Convergence in Collaborative Learning: Concepts and Assessment. Learning in Instruction, 17(4), 416-426.

No Child Left Behind Act, retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/nclb/accountability/achieve/nclb-aa.html and http://www.ed.gov/nclb/methods/teachers/teachers-faq.html.

Oncu, S., Delialioglu, O., Brown, C. "Critical Components for Technology Integration: How do Instructors Make Decisions?". Italic textThe Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, no1 19-46, 2008.

This page titled 2.4: What are the educational milestones of the 21st century? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 3.4: What are the educational milestones of the 21st century? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

2.5: What is the history of teacher education?

by Rebeca Coleman

Learning Objectives

• Students should be able to understand the beginnings of teacher education, starting in the ancient times.

• Students should understand the progression from few requirements to many requirements to teach.

Introduction

Teacher education has changed quite a bit over the last few hundred years. Teachers have gone from scholars to men and women in a schoolroom to trained educators from specific schools. Over time though, the gift of being able to teach stayed true in those teachers.

Before the Seventeenth Century

In earlier times, priests and prophets taught noble and wealthy children skills that were needed to excel in business and politics. Priests were treated well because of their great knowledge. The first private teacher was Confucius in the fifth century BCE. In Ancient Greece, knowledge was considered very sacred and the same ideology passed through the time of Christianity. Education was not very popular among lower classes of people until after the Middle Ages. The Roman Catholic Church took responsibility and created centers of learning, which eventually became the great universities of Europe, including Cambridge (John’s 2003).

The Beginnings of Specific Training

Note

"Children are guilty of unpardonable rudeness when they spit in the face of a companion; neither are they excusable who spit from windows or on walls or furniture." St. John Baptist de la Salle (de la Salle, 1695)

Specific teacher training originated in France in 1685 by St. John Baptist de la Salle (Teacher 2007). The training spread through Europe through the monitorial system, which is the method of education where there are number of students at a bench, a monitor (older student) who is instructed by the teacher and then instructs the younger students, and then the teacher (Teacher 2007). It spread through Europe thanks to August Hermann Francke and Johann Pestalozzi. It came to the United States in the early 1800s through this system (Teacher 2007). Schools could be a student’s room in a wealthy household or a one-room schoolhouse for poorer groups of children.

Teacher Education Moves to the United States

Teachers were predominantly male before the early 1800s. Men were taught to read and write from the early days of language, and women were not taught very widely until the nineteenth century. This made it very difficult for them to teach. If a person could read and write, that person was basically qualified to teach. Teachers were chosen based on their moral quality by the local government (John’s 2003).

In the 1820s, teacher training became important in the universities and academies in the United States. Women could only be taught in teacher training academies, while men could be taught in universities (History 2007). Samuel Hall created the first private normal after-high school teaching school which taught teachers in 1823. The first government funded normal school was created in Massachusetts in 1837 (John’s 2003). Henry Barnard and Horace Mann helped the spread of more normal teacher-education schools (Teacher 2007). More and more universities then began to take note and included teaching schools within them. By the end of the eighteenth century, there were 127 state-supported normal schools and a larger number of private normal schools (Angus 2001 p. 6).

Teachers were starting to be required to be certified in the late nineteenth century (Angus 2001 p. 4). Pennsylvania was the first state in 1834 to require tests to show general knowledge of arithmetic, writing, and reading (Ravitch 2003). And by the middle of the nineteenth century, most other states required this sort of testing. This was a huge development because before this testing came about on the state level, teachers only had to prove themselves to the cities and counties and that usually rested upon a teacher’s morality. By mid-century, the test also started to require history, spelling, grammar, and geography (Ravitch 2003).

Teaching Styles and Schools

There were two different types of teaching styles-eastern and western. Eastern normal schools mainly taught to young women with no prior teaching experience, and aimed at teaching them for elementary education. The western normal schools taught mainly older students, especially more men, and the teaching was aimed at getting young women better jobs and then young men better administrative jobs (Angus 2001). This difference in teaching led to a change from normal schools to teaching schools in the late 1800s. There also became more requirements to attend teaching schools.

The first two graduate schools in education were established at New York University (1887) and then Teachers College, Columbia University (1888), and since then graduate programs have increased exponentially (Teacher 2007). Graduate schools gave the idea to teachers to consider themselves as a profession, which became a very controversial idea in the twentieth century, and continues to remain one today.

The Twentieth Century

By the beginning of the twentieth century, there came about the idea to make teaching more of a profession, with specific standards for certification. At this point, every state had different standards. There also was dispute because, since the creation of graduate programs, teachers wanted to be considered a profession, just like law and medicine, but they were not considered such to the professional world. This was mostly because it was such a new idea for it to be a profession, and also there were no specific standards yet. So the American Council on Education established a National Teacher’s Examination in the 1930s (Ravitch 2007). This was very controversial. There was a large setback with this test because of World War II. There was a teacher shortage, and school systems did not have the luxury of caring if a teacher was properly certified or not. After World War II, though, it became more received. The requirements for having the testing became more rigorous (Angus 2001 p. 21).

Arguments

Some people argue that teachers should better themselves and should learn the latest teaching research to stay on top of everything, much like in the medical field with new medical advancements (Ravitch 2007). People like this argue that teaching cannot become a viable profession until such measures are taken to learn from history and continue to learn from research. Some people question the competency of teacher’s policy analysis (Martinez 2008).

My Beliefs

Note

"What is nobler than to mold the character of the young? I consider that he who knows how to form the youthful mind is truly greater than all painters, sculptors and all others of that sort." St. John Chrysostom (Chrysostom)

I believe that teaching is a profession in itself. I think it is important along with law and medicine in the professional field. Where would doctors and lawyers be without the teachers who taught them? I believe that teachers should educate themselves and keep up-to-date on current research and ideas. Technology is wonderful and should be integrated into classrooms, especially with younger generations now growing up entirely in a technologically advanced world.

References

Angus, D. L. Professionalism and the Public Good: A Brief History of Teacher Certification. (2001). Retrieved September 17, 2008 from Educational Resources Information Center.

Crysostom, J. Retrieved from http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/SaintOfDay/default.asp?id=1346

De la Salle, J. B. (1695). Retrieved from www.memorable-quotes.com/st++john+baptist+de+la+salle,a1155.html

John’s History of Education. (2003). Retrieved September 17, 2008, from historyeducationinfo.com/edu4.htm

Martinez, M. (2008, September 1). Competencies and Higher Education Policy Analysts [Abstract]. Educational Policy, 22 (5), 623-639. Retrieved from SAGE Journals Online. doi:10.1177/0895904807307068

Ravitch, D. Strengthen Teacher Quality (2003, August 23). Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/admins/tchrqual/learn/preparingteachersconference/ravitch.html

Teacher Training. (2007). In The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Retrieved September 17, 2008, from http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0848026.html

This page titled 2.5: What is the history of teacher education? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 3.5: What is the history of teacher education? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

This chapter explored the significant developments in education and teacher training from ancient times to the 21st century.

• 17th and 18th Centuries: Key educational philosophies and methodologies emerged, influenced by figures like Sir Francis Bacon, René Descartes, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These laid the foundation for modern educational systems, including the categorization of students by age and the emphasis on empirical and rational thinking.

• 19th Century: The Common School Movement in America marked the start of public schooling, making education accessible to a broader population. Innovators like Horace Mann and William Holmes McGuffey were pivotal in establishing these schools and their curricula.

• 20th Century: Major advancements included the G.I. Bill, Brown v. Board of Education, Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Title IX of 1972, and the Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1975. These acts collectively expanded educational access and equality, especially for marginalized groups.

• 21st Century: The focus shifted towards integrating technology in education, emphasizing the need for educators to adapt teaching styles to technological advancements and collaborative learning environments.

• History of Teacher Education: Evolved from informal training by priests and prophets in ancient times to formalized teacher training programs and certification processes. The role of teachers transitioned from imparting basic literacy to becoming professionally trained educators. The 20th century saw a push towards professionalizing teaching.

This chapter highlights the dynamic nature of educational development and teacher training, underscoring the constant evolution to meet societal needs and technological advancements.

1. Role of Key Figures in Educational Reform: How did influential figures like Sir Francis Bacon, René Descartes, and Horace Mann shape the course of educational history, and what modern educational practices can be directly traced back to their philosophies and methodologies?

2. Impact of Legislation on Educational Equality: Discuss the effects of landmark legislations such as Brown v. Board of Education and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 on the inclusivity and accessibility of education. How have these laws changed the educational landscape in terms of opportunities for marginalized groups?

3. Technology in 21st Century Education: Given the rapid integration of technology in educational settings, what are the potential benefits and challenges of this shift for both students and educators? How should educational systems evolve to effectively incorporate technological advancements while maintaining core educational values?

Further Reading:

• History of Education, Kidd et. Al 2.1-2.4 

• History and Theories in Foundations of Education Lumen 8.1-8.8 

• Educational Law 10.1-10.4 Foundations of Education Lumen 

• Political influences in Education 11.1-11.6