"Philosophy and Inspiration" by liquidindian is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. 

3.1: What are philosophies of education?

by Dionne Nichols

Introduction

What makes a teacher? Teaching is like a salad. Think about it. If you were to attend a party for any given holiday, the number of and variations to each salad recipe that might be present for consumption could outnumber those present at the party. There are so many different ways to teach, varying circumstances to take into account, and philosophies to apply to each classroom. And what better way to have a positive impact on the world than to offer knowledge for consumption? The term ‘teacher’ can be applied to anyone who imparts knowledge of any topic, but it is generally more focused on those who are hired to do so (teach, n.d., n.p.). In imparting knowledge to our students, it is inevitable that we must take into account our own personal philosophies, or pedagogies, and determine not only how we decide what our philosophies are, but also how those impact our consumers.

Lessons in Pedagogy

Early teacher education classes frequently separated the concept of philosophy into separate schools (Roberson, 2000, p. 8). “Philosophy has been taught in the theoretical realm rather than the practical sense,” meaning that the ideas were placed before the teachers without the scaffolding to create a bridge into the classroom (Roberson, 2000, p. 7). The teachers, as students, were given a body of thought and expected to translate that into lessons for their own students. Once you have the idea, how do you apply it to teaching?

An analogy is one of a teacher's most useful tools. It helps the instructor relate a difficult concept to something the students will already have the infrastructure for, thus enabling the students to cement the ideas in their mind.

What, exactly, are education philosophies? According to Thelma Roberson (2000), most prospective teachers confuse their beliefs with the ideas of teaching (p. 6). Education philosophies, then, are not what you want to do in class to aid learning, but why you do them and how they work. For example, Roberson’s students state they “want to use cooperative learning techniques” in their classroom. The question posed is, why? “[I]s cooperative learning a true philosophy or is it something you do in the classroom because of your belief about the way children learn?” (Roberson, 2000, p. 6). Philosophies need to translate ideas into action – if you want to use certain techniques, then you need to understand how they are effective in the classroom to create that portion of your education philosophy. It helps to have an overview of the various schools out there.

Philosophies of Education have traveled down a tree of branches. The first four support branches of philosophy are the Idealist school, the Realist school, the Pragmatist school, and the Existential schools of thought (Ornstein, 2003, p. 99). It might help to look at the tree and its individual branches rather than read about them...

• Idealism - focuses on a subject-matter curriculum emphasizing the great ideas of the culture. You must ponder ideas to make them whole (Ornstein, 2003, p. 99).

• Realism - A subject-matter curriculum stressing objective knowledge and values. Reality is objective, meaning everyone should obtain the same results regardless of what he does or how he consider concepts (Ornstein, 2003, p. 101)

  • Perennialism - Focuses on human concerns that have caused concern for centuries, revealed through 'great works' (Ornstein, 2003, p. 110)

  • Essentialism - Rooted partially in Idealism, as well - Emphasizes skills and subjects that demonstrate the cultural heritage and contribute to society (Ornstein, 2003, p. 110)

• Pragmatism - Instruction is organized around problem-solving following the steps of the scientific method - emphasizes the need to act on concepts by testing them (Ornstein, 2003, p. 104).

  • Progressivism - Instruction features problem solving and group activities - The instructor acts as a facilitator as opposed to a leader (Ornstein, 2003, p. 110)

  • Social Reconstructionism - Instruction that focuses on significant social and economic problems in an effort to solve them (Ornstein, 2003, pg.110)

• Existentialism - Classroom dialogue stimulates awareness - each person creates an awareness gleaned from discussion and encourages deep personal reflection on his or her convictions (Ornstein, 2003, p. 108).

Perennialism

Perennialists are instructors who feel that the knowledge that has been passed through the ages should be continued as the basis of the curriculum, like the classic works of Plato and Einstein. Perennialists base their teachings on reason, logic, and analytical thought. Only information that stood the test of time is relevant. They do not illicit student input. The classes most likely to be considered under this approach would be history, science, math, and religion classes (Educational Philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

Positivism

The instructors whose teaching philosophies are based on documented facts and tangible truths are normally those who would be in the math and science departments. These teachers do not feel that religion and the supernatural should be a part of the thinking process. The idea of uncertainty and the unknown is considered illogical (Educational Philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

Behaviorism

Behaviorists believe in rewards and punishments as an approach to controlling the teaching environment due to their belief in the intrinsic nature of humans to react to internal or external stimuli. This teacher-centered system ultimately allows the students to be controlled by the educator, who makes the environment pleasant or unpleasant depending on the students' behavior (Foundations of Education, pg.1).

Essentialism

Essentialists believe that there is a universal pool of knowledge needed by all students. The fundamentals of teaching are the basis of the curriculum: math, science, history, foreign language, and English. Vocational classes are not seen as a necessary part of educational training. Classrooms are formal, teacher-centered, and students are passive learners. Evaluations are predominately through testing, and there are few, if any, projects or portfolios. These instructors easily accept the No Child Left-Behind Act because test scores are the main form of evaluation (Foundations of Education, pg. 1).

Progressivism

This is a student-centered form of instruction where students follow the scientific method of questioning and searching for the answer. Evaluations include projects and portfolios. Current events are used to keep students interested in the required subject matter. Students are active learners as opposed to passive learners. The teacher is a facilitator rather than the center of the educational process. Student input is encouraged, and students are asked to find their interpretation of the answer (Educational Philosophies in the classroom, pg.1).

Reconstructionism

This student-centered philosophy strives to instill a desire to make the world a better place. It places a focus on controversial world issues and uses current events as a springboard for the thinking process. These students are taught the importance of working together to bring about change. These teachers incorporate what is happening in the world with what they are learning in the classroom (Educational Philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

Constructivism

Active participation is the key to this teaching style. Students are free to explore their own ideas and share concepts with one another in nontraditional ways. “Hands on activity […] is the most effective way of learning and is considered true learning” (Educational Philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

Humanism/ Existentialism

Also a student-centered philosophy, this educational method is based on the idea that the students should be presented with choices about the learning process. The student is engaged in all aspects of learning and works together with the teacher and her peers to develop a curriculum and evaluation system that allows for individual interests and abilities (Educational philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

Note

Your philosophy of education is what you believe about education and the way children learn.” - Roberson pg 4

In addition, the ‘constructivist’ school of philosophy, rooted in the Pragmatic pedagogy and branched off from the 'Social Reconstructivist' school, has gained much popularity. Around the turn of the century (early 1990s), many teachers felt the rote memorization and mindless routine that was common then was ineffective, and began to look for alternate ways to reach their students (Ornstein, 2003, p. 111). Through the constructivist approach, "students “construct” knowledge through an interaction between what they already think and know and with new ideas and experiences” (Roberson, 2000, p. 8). This is an active learning process that leads to deeper understanding of the concepts presented in class, and is based on the abilities and readiness of the children rather than set curriculum guidelines (Ornstein, 2003, p. 112). Constructivism "emphasizes socially interactive and process-oriented 'hands on' learning in which students work collaboratively to expand and revise their knowledge base" (Ornstein, 2003, p. 112). Essentially, knowledge which is shaped by experience is reconstructed, or altered, to assist the student in understanding new concepts (Ornstein, 2003, p. 112). You, as the teacher, help the students build the scaffolding they need to maintain the information even after the test is taken and graded.

Four Philosophies in Assessment

Once you know how you want to lead your classroom, it is important to consider how to assess your students' progress. And when we think of school, we automatically consider the threesome subjects, Reading, Writing, and ‘Rithmatic. In all aspects of learning, however, the ability to communicate comes to the forefront. Communication is used in class discussion as well as unit test short answers. Writing is present in almost all subjects in some form, and writing translates to communication. Richard Fulkerson (2000), in his article “Four Philosophies of Composition,” questions whether “a […] set of four philosophies of composition might exist, each one stressing a different element in the communicative transaction” (p. 3). Fulkerson’s schools of communicative philosophy fall into the following categories:

• Expressionism: a way of writing that demonstrates the students’ thoughts and can be lead by “non-directive teachers, some of whom insist that one neither can nor should evaluate writing” or more hands-on teachers who “design classroom activities to maximize student self-discovery” (p. 5). This school of thought emphasizes the student.

• Rhetorical: this school states that good writing is adapted to achieve a specific reaction from the audience (p. 6). This is focused on the connection between goal and process in completing assignments, and it emphasizes the audience.

• Mimesis: states that “a clear connection exists between good writing and good thinking” and focuses on logic and reason as exemplified in the completion of assignments (p. 5). This school emphasizes a well-rounded student in that, research, prior knowledge, and the ability to recognize both sides of an argument are necessary for success (p. 6).

• Formalism: this school focuses primarily on the form of the assignment – it disregards content to the extent that poor grammar can distract the audience from absorbing the content, and therefore, the work is judged “primarily by whether it shows certain internal [mistakes]” (p. 4).

While most teachers fall primarily into one school of composition pedagogy, Fulkerson (2000) points out that it is necessary to hold on to them all when he states “they are not mutually exclusive” (p. 6). The trick is to learn when each is applicable and to what extent it should be employed.

Hooked on Phonics?

So, you know how you want to lead your class, and you have an idea as to which kind of 'grader' you are. What next? Another area where teachers have struggled is simply in helping their students learn to or improve their reading. How do we teach reading? The two battling schools of thought are between those who support Whole Language, and those who support Phonics. “The disputes have been dubbed the Reading Wars, and the participants call them ‘vicious’” (Collins, 1997, n.p.). Several states have even intervened and enacted laws mandating one or the other.

But what are they? Just as their names state, the difference is in how the words are read. Phonics was taught primarily in the 1970s (Collins, 1997, n.p.) and study the individual components of each word, called ‘phonemes,’ which are the “smallest meaningful sounds in a language” (Collins, 1997, n.p.). “Cat, for example, has three: “kuh-aa-tuh” (Collins, 1997, n.p.). A reader needs to understand how the words are broken up and that each letter has its own sound in order to read (Collins, 1997, n.p.). Phonic teaching focuses on code learning. Once the students understand the ‘code,’ and how the words phonemes are put together, they are supposed to be able to understand the entire word.

Whole language advocates disagree with the process of breaking each word down. They feel readers cannot focus on every letter in a word, or every word in a text (Collins, 1997, n.p.) and made their opinions known during the 1980s (Collins, 1997, n.p.). If they did, “and if they tried to translate what they saw into sounds, reading would be much too cumbersome” (Collins, 1997, n.p.). Instead, whole language teachers instruct their students in ‘skipping strategies’ – ways of guessing which word comes next to fill in any blanks (Collins, 1997, n.p.). Overall, reading is considered an organic process by which the students learn phonics “only when a question about phonics comes up in the course of reading” (Collins, 1997, n.p.). Whole language focuses on the meaning behind the words.

Which is better?

Just as in many other walks of life, statistics and studies show that one philosophy of teaching will prevail over another. The National Assessment of Educational Progress, as stated in J. Collin’s article (1997), claims that “from 1971 to 1980 there was a steady improvement in the reading comprehension of nine-year-olds. However, during the 1980s…the scores did not improve and rather declined” (n.p.).

The 1990s brought the topic full circle. It was then that Marilyn Adams, a cognitive psychologist, wrote a book describing the best methods to teach learning. “Programs that combined systematic phonics instruction with meaning emphasis seemed to work best of all” (Collins, 1997, n.p.). The key to reading is that words need to be recognized so the brain can interpret the meaning behind it (Collins, 1997, n.p.). Thus, putting the two methods together was necessary for correct comprehension of the concepts presented.

What else do I need to know?

We’ve discussed the accepted definition of pedagogy, varying schools of thought for assessment, and the difference between reading philosophies. Your salad components are increasing by number exponentially. But what toppings to you add to your thought salad? What else do you need to consider when you are setting up your classroom, your teaching styles, and your lessons?

Teaching is the hardest job you can have. You are in a position to touch hundreds of lives over the course of a career, and yet, how do you succeed? The fact remains that “when a teacher and his/her students face each other in the classroom they must truly work with each other” (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.). How else can you ensure that the students are learning what you are teaching?

The first thing to keep in mind is your own knowledge basis. Cadenas (1999) recommends that you “renew and refresh your knowledge of the subject matter” (n.p.) to stay on top of changes and help you incorporate them in to your lessons. Our world changes so rapidly that to stay on top of technology, your field of expertise, or even other areas that can be integrated into your subject matter, it is necessary to take a class or attend a seminar every once in a while (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.).

Next, “prepare interesting, colorful, captivating lesson plans and deliver then with gusto” (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.). An entertaining teacher will help cement information into a student’s memory with much more ease than one who is monotone or inactive (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.). The more entertaining you are, the deeper a connection you will make with your students, as well.

In addition to the captivating lesson, make sure “it [is] a number one priority to ensure that your student can follow the lesson” (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.). This will assist all your students in grasping the information you are placing before them in class, and will help you reach students of all learning styles (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.). You don’t want to end up teaching only to the auditory learners and leaving the visual learners to fend for themselves!

Last, “help your students to put their learning to use immediately” (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.). Show them how the lessons you are teaching are applicable to them so they feel like school is worth an investment of time and energy (Cadenas, 1999, n.p.). If nothing else, have them help each other out in class to reinforce the lesson!

Note

[You] may spend as much as 60 hours a week creating lesson plans, teaching, advising students, grading, supervising extracurricular activities and meeting with colleagues and parents” Valerie Marchant – Time

Conclusion

You are ready to graze at a Fourth of July picnic. You walk over to the table, and you see an array of salads ready for you to dive in to them. How do you pick which ones you want to sample now or save for later? How do you narrow the choices down?

Educational philosophies are as abundant as salads at any holiday spread. And even though the difference between one potato salad and the one next to it is an addition of mustard, the two are by no means exactly alike. Your classes will be just as diverse. You will have students from all economic classes, with differing levels of English language ability, and all bringing various and beautiful experiences to your class. How do you reach each individual?

Knowing who you are as a teacher before you enter the classroom will help significantly. Teaching is so much more than just the content. Teaching is a learning curve on philosophy that will never be finished. Just as your classroom will change every year, continue to alter your philosophies. See what works for you and your students on a collaborative level. In the words of J. W. Apps, “a working philosophy is never completely developed the ultimate working philosophy never reached. We’re always moving toward, hopefully, a more complete, and thus more useful, working philosophy.” (The Educational Philosophies of Training and Development Professors, Leaders, and Practitioners, pg. 1)

References

Cadenas, H. G. (1999). Revitalize your teaching—four key elements for success. Contemporary Education, 70 (2), 5-7. Retrieved on January 28, 2008, from Wilsonweb.com website: http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e1e9c442f93fe94fd3dd814f5b54d3854a715b6e9cc14f3538d830ddf5e8d15a6&fmt=H

Chef Larry's fall salad with fruit and roasted nut confetti walnut vinaigrette (n.d.). County Television Network. Retrieved on February 2, 2008, from USASearch.gov website: usasearch.gov/search?v%3aproject=firstgov-images&v%3afile=viv_896%4031%3ahDAOGw&v%3aframe=viewimage&v%3astate=root%7croot-20-20%7c0&id=Ndoc22&rpaid=&

Collins, J. (1997, October 27). How Johnny should read. Time. Retrieved on January 28, 2008, from Time.com website: www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,987253-1,00.html

Fulkerson, R. (2000). Four philosophies of composition. In E. Corbett, N. Myers and G. Tate (Eds.), The writing teacher’s sourcebook (4th ed.) (pp. 3–8). New York: Oxford University Press.

Marchant, V. (2000, May 29). Why not teach next? Time. Retrieved on January 28, 2008, from Time.com website: www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,997031-1,00.html

Ornstein, A. and Daniel Levine. (2003). Foundations of education (8th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Pedagogy. (n.d.). Wordnet 3.0. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pedagogy

Roberson, T. (2000 September 29). Philosophy of philosophy: making the connection between philosophy and pedagogy for preservice teachers (Paper presented at Meeting for the Society for Philosophy and History of Education, Biloxi, MS 2000).

teach. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved February 3, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/teach

Ganly, S. Educational philosophies in the classroom. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from Associated Content website: http://www.associatedcontent.com

This page titled 3.1: What are philosophies of education? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 2.1: What are philosophies of education? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

3.2: What is the purpose of education?

By: Karen Herndon

Introduction

Have you ever asked yourself what the purpose of education is? It is believed to be a question that is highly thought about but in reality it is not. We tend to focus on the tasks at hand rather than the overall goal. Many will find that when asked specifically what education’s purpose is, the answer in return is nothing outside of the course curriculum (Bass, 1997). Well you may be questioning why this is. In order to provide an answer we need to consider both sides of the topic. On one hand the government controls the educational system which enforces the use of mandatory testing to evaluate each student as well as the educational institution. In other words, emphasis is placed on providing students with the skill that they will need to succeed. On the other hand, there is the belief that children should not only be presented with the abilities to learn but they should be able to expand what is given through individual growth and development beyond materials obtained from the classroom. Their inner talents need to be brought out and polished (Minor, 2007).

Note

“Do not then train youth to learn by force and harshness; but direct them to it by what amuses their minds so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of each." ~Plato (Minor, 2007)

Government Effects on Education’s Purpose

If one looks closely at the government’s heavy involvement in what to teach and what not to teach children it’s the administering of assessment tests. These tests do not allow a child to form opinions on subjects which in turn impedes social growth and development. The government forces school districts to meet certain minimal requirements so unfortunately the focal point has become mainly to teach material that students will need to know in order to obtain passing scores on standardized tests (Bass, 1997). This is attributed to the government’s implementation of laws such as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (A Firsthand Look at NCLB, 2006). Students are expected to follow certain guidelines and curriculum; however teachers are pressed for time. In order to ensure they achieve all of the mandated guidelines and curriculum they teach only what they are required to. This leaves little time to introduce material to students that may be beneficial to them in the long run (Bass, 1997). For example the NCLB has received strict criticism for focusing too much on testing and not enough on actually teaching and allowing the student to further their knowledge. It has been brought up that the NCLB’s ignorance towards equity has caused problems. For instance one school system may possess funding which would make it easier to obtain the minimum passing score versus a school system that lacked funding. (A Firsthand Look at NCLB, 2006).

Social Development’s Role in Education

Education is not only being presented with material to learn but to also expand one’s knowledge of themselves and their surroundings. It appears that the growing trend today in school systems is to teach students particular course work with little to no regard to instruction on how this material could relate to life. Since most subjects utilize textbooks they are heavily relied upon and do not allow the student much freedom to think outside the box (Lim, 2005). Children will naturally form opinions from the material that is presented and being able to express these opinions will only help them to grow socially and eventually fit in with the rest of the world. Social growth is very important because when it is time for the child to become independent if they have not developed that part of their life then interaction with other people and situations could be quite daunting. Most parents and parental guardians do want their child to follow a structured curriculum; however, they still want their child to have time for recreation and family. Childhood is an important part of everyone’s life. It encourages social interaction and development as well as teaching them to be independent. People that are deprived of their childhood regret it when they grow up which could negatively impact their lives and the lives of others (Lim, 2005).

Note

“The only purpose of education is to teach a student how to live his life-by developing his mind and equipping him to deal with reality. The training he needs is theoretical, i.e., conceptual. He has to be taught to think, to understand, to integrate, to prove. He has to be taught the essentials of the knowledge discovered in the past-and he has to be equipped to acquire further knowledge by his own effort. ~Ayn Rand

(Yero, 2001-2002. p. 1)

"Biography of Thomas Jefferson (Third President 1801-1809)" by Tony Fischer Photography is licensed under CC BY 2.0. 

Thomas Jefferson’s View

With regard to the purpose of education Thomas Jefferson was one of the biggest advocates of the principle that ignorance and political liberty could not co-exist. Jefferson believed the purpose of education was to properly prepare young minds so they would be able to make educated decisions and uphold the integrity of the country. He insisted on providing four main subjects to elementary school students. Geography, arithmetic along with reading and writing made up these subjects. These subjects were deemed crucial for the proper development of children in order to function later in life. One example of this is that Jefferson believed that children needed to be given proper education in order to become informed voters. He supported free education through taxation as well as equal opportunity education. Jefferson believed the purpose of education was not to segregate but to educate (Jewett, 1997).

Evaluating Student Assessment

Getting back to assessment and student evaluation drives one to consider if whether we are going about education wrong as a country by placing so much importance upon standardized tests. As previously stated, it has been debated whether The No Child Left Behind Act does little to expand the constantly developing minds of our youth (A Firsthand Look at NCLB, 2006). A child’s mind can be compared to a sponge, in that they need to soak up information and substance in order for it to expand, otherwise, it dries out. If you observe the examinations and how students are generally evaluated in today’s school systems, you will see that the vast majority of them are made up of multiple choice questions. Since there is typically only one correct answer, it is almost impossible for the child to reflect upon the question and develop a view that they can grow from or share with others if they so choose (Yero, 2001-2002).

In Summation

When considering both sides of the purpose of education you may want to reflect on the words of Plato when he said: “Do not then train youth to learn by force and harshness; but direct them to it by what amuses their minds so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of each (Minor, 2007).” However, the government’s involvement in education has had positive impacts on students since the NCLB has forced teachers and other school officials to focus on all children including those with special needs (A Firsthand Look at NCLB, 2006). No matter what side of the river you are on with regard to your opinion on this topic, it is hard to discredit the fact that one purpose (if not the main purpose) of education is to prepare the youth for their future and ours.

References

A First Hand Look at NCLB. (2006). Educational Leadership, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ766269) Retrieved February 2, 2008, from ERIC database.

Bass, Randall V. (1997). The Purpose of Education. The Educational Forum 61. 128-32. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e1e9c442f93fe94fd41479b00e75d7c18b3344ea852044009af47f7afa8bcd3df&fmt=H

Jewett, Thomas O. (1997). Thomas Jefferson and the Purposes of Education. The Educational Forum 61. 110-113. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e1e9c442f93fe94fd41479b00e75d7c18b3344ea852044009ceb909ea41cb5644&fmt=H

Lim, Mike. (2005). What is Education? The All I Need. Retrieved February 2, 2008 from http://www.theallineed.com/family/05032602.htm

Minor, Summer. (2007). The Purpose of Education is… Mom is Teaching Blog. Retrieved February 2, 2008 from http://www.momisteaching.com/the-purpose-of-education-is/+purpose+of+education+summer+minor&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us

Yero, Judith Lloyd. (2001-2002). The Meaning of Education. Teacher’s Mind Resources. 1-3. Retrieved February 2, 2008 from www.teachersmind.com/pdfdirectory/Education.PDF

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• 2.2: What is the purpose of education? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

"Plato and Aristotle" by Image Editor is licensed under CC BY 2.0. 

3.3: How is Plato a philosophical leader in education?

By Laira Stewart

Learning Objectives

• Readers should be able to define the Socratic method

• Readers should be able to give an example of the dialectic method

• Readers should be able to describe Plato’s educational thought as outlined in The Republic

Overview of Plato

Considered by historians to be one of the most influential minds of Western thought, Plato described the Socratic method of instruction and further developed this dialectic method in his later years. (Smith, 1997). The Socratic method is basically a learning method using a question and answer dialogue between the teacher and student. The idea is that the ensuing debate exposes flaws in reasoning and brings forth a better understanding of the issue. Plato improved on the Socratic method in his later years and developed a philosophy of education as outlined in The Republic that became the hallmark of a European liberal arts education.

427 to 347 BC. Plato was born in Athens in 427BC. When his father died, his mother married, Pyrilampes, a friend of Pericles. Plato began to pursue a political career, but became disillusioned with the politics of the time. Evidently, he was good at athletics, poetry and drama. In 409 BC he met Socrates, and according to Plato, he was one of Socrates more outstanding students. Socrates did not follow the then current trend of the Sophist method of teaching which used rhetoric or persuasion to dictate learning to their students. The Sophists asked high fees for their teaching while Socrates charged nothing. Plato, while mistrustful of the Sophists did share their interest in investigating values rather than physical science. In 399 Socrates was brought to trial for corrupting the minds of youth because of his skepticism regarding religious deities. He was convicted and sentenced to death. Socrates committed suicide rather than face execution. Plato wrote about the trial and Socrates decision not to try to escape from prison. After this Plato traveled extensively studying religion, geometry and astronomy. In 387 BC he returned to Athens and founded a university that included philosophy, physical science, astronomy and mathematics. Plato also developed a philosophy of education for prospective rulers requiring them to be philosophers first and rulers second as detailed in The Republic He is thought to have died at the age of 80 in 347 BC. (GradeSaver).

Socratic Method

The Socratic method is a dialectic method of teaching, named after the Greek philosopher Socrates, in which the teacher uses questions to get the student to think about what he/she already knows and to realize what they do not know. This question and answer session stimulates the brain, engages the learner, and can bring new ideas to life. As one educator stated, “Think of it as the relentless pursuit of truth through unceasing questions. To engage in dialectic method, establish your goal to clearly understand truth and get on with it.” (Kern, 2008).

Today, law schools are trying to find better ways to teach their students the important concepts they will need in the future. The Socratic Method is one of the ways a lot of teachers have found to be most useful. Since the Socratic Method is the basis for which courts handle cases, it seems only fitting to have the students at a law school learn that way. In a court room a series of questions are asked to get the judge and/or jury to see the truth of the situation at hand. The teacher likes using the Socratic Method in their classes because they believe it helps the students get into the mind set of being a lawyer, plus they believe it helps the students learn and retain the information better. "One of the principle benefits that the Socratic Method confers is to allow large bodies of students to engage in "active learning." "Students learn better when they are actively involved in the learning process" rather than passively taking notes and the teacher dispenses information." (Jackson, 2007).

Note

Here are some Videos on Plato

These links will take you to some very interesting videos about Plato and Socrates.

1. Watch this clip, Plato The Encyclopedia Channel. YouTube.
2. Watch this clip, Socrates How Stuff Works.
3. Watch this clip, Socratic Method in Law school Pacific McGeorge School of Law Faculty. YouTube.

Dialectic Method Example

The benefits of this method are that the student becomes engaged in the learning process and contributes in developing the answers (led by the teacher). This is in contrast to didactic learning in which the teacher tells the student what they need to know.

Begin with a question that has several possible answers or is ambiguous so that you can begin asking the question in different ways until the students reason out the answer you wish them to learn. Then encourage them to ask themselves other responses.

For example: High School class discussion after reading the Noah’s Ark story from the Old Testament:

Teacher: What is a covenant?

Possible answer: An agreement.

Teacher: I agree to meet you for lunch, is that a covenant?

Possible answer: Sort of.

Teacher: What was the covenant God made to Noah?

Possible answer: God promised never to destroy the world by a flood.

Teacher: Does a covenant imply something more than an agreement?

Possible answer: A promise

Teacher: Yes, a covenant is an agreement with a promise. I make an agreement to meet you for lunch and I promise to be there no matter what.

Notice in this example the student has come up with the answer. If the teacher had simply told the student the definition of a covenant, chances are the student would simply not care to remember the meaning. In this example, the student is more likely to remember the meaning since he/she was involved in finding the answer.

Note

Go to this link for a specific example that was used in a 3rd grade elementary math class.

Thoughts on the Republic

Plato believed that a teacher must care deeply for the student and have a good understanding of the subject being taught. In The Republic Plato outlines a lifelong learning process for rulers that begins with learning to read, write and do mathematics at age six. As the child grows music and sports are added. At age 18 military services are added. At age 30 the ruler should study philosophy and politics. It is not until age 50 that the ruler should rule. This lifelong liberal arts education would ensure that the ruler had experience and wisdom in order to make just decisions. The Republic is mostly about defining justice and the different types of justice. Only a philosopher-King can dispense the appropriate justice. This method of instruction became useful during the Middle Ages in the royal classes, and can be seen in the British royal family today. The British males are required to do military service, attend university, and work in civil service for many years before they take over the role of King. An interesting note is that the current Queen of England, Elizabeth, was reluctant to hand over the reins to Phillip until after he had a wife and family, and has not yet retired. (Jowett)

Here are some other interesting links on Plato

These links will take you to some very interesting videos about Plato and Socrates.

1. Click this link, Plato Biography Kraut.
2. Click this link, Plato Outline Kemerling.
3. Click this link, Socratic Method in Law Schools Jackson.

Summary

Both the Didactic and Dialectic methods are necessary for teaching. There are many times when telling the student what he/she needs to know is the only way to impart information. However, the dialectic method is essential for engaging students in interactive learning, in giving them some ownership of discovery in the learning process. The dialectic method can provide an opportunity for debate of issues, exploration of ideas and use of higher thinking skills. Since the object of learning is to be able to discern and make decisions based on knowledge, the dialectic method is critical for growth of knowledge.

References

Anderson, Ronald D. (1994). Issues of Curriculum Reform in Science, Mathematics and Higher Order ...office of research, [Abstract]. US Department of education. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=hwmb_mqZgVQC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=teach+by+asking+instead+of+telling&source=web&ots=WnZ-otfmkT&sig=chknfZ02MSgDTPQj0-oUwTU7XBY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA44,M1

Garlokov, Rick. The Socratic Method:Teaching by Asking Instead of by Telling. Retrieved September 22, 2008, from http://www.garlikov.com/Soc_Meth.html

GradeSaver. Plato. (n.d.) Harvard College. Retrieved October 5, 2008, from http://www.gradesaver.com/classicnotes/authors/about_plato.html

How Stuff Works. A Discovery Company. Ancient Greece: Socrates and Plato. (n.d.) [Video File]. Video posted to http://videos.howstuffworks.com/hsw/25880-ancient-greece-socrates-and-plato-video.htm

Jackson, Jeffrey D. ,Socrates and Langdell. (May 17, 2007). Legal Writg: Is the Socratic Method a Proper Tool for Legal Writg Courses?. California Western Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 267–308, Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=986343

Jowett, Benjamin. The Republic by Plato. Available from http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.html

Kemerling, Garth. (Last updated on 9 August 2006). Plato. Philosophy Pages. Retrieved October 5, 2008, from http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/plat.htm

Kern, Andrew. Two Methods of Instruction. Articles from The Classical Teacher. Retrieved September 22, 2008. www.meuimoriapress.com/articles/twoinstuct.html

Kraut, Richard. (March 20, 2004). Plato. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved October 5, 2008, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/

Plato. (n.d.) The Internet Encyclopedia for Philosophy. Retrieved September 22, 2008, from http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/plato.htm

Smith, Mark K. (First published May 8, 1997. Last update: April 11, 2008). Plato. From http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-plato.htm

University, of Chicago, The Law School. The Socratic Method (n.d.) Retrieved September 22, 2008, from www.law.uchicago.edu/socrates/method.html

YouTube. (July 13, 2008). Plato - Encyclopedia channel. (n.d.) [Video File]. Video posted to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1aWK_69ufbo

YouTube. (August 22, 2008). Pacific McGeorge School of Law Faculty on the Socratic Method. (n.d.) [Video File]. Video posted to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9B_zYs_ZhY

This page titled 3.3: How is Plato a philosophical leader in education? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

3.4: What is constructivism?

Todd Douglas Vanderbilt

What is Constructivism?

The root word of Constructivism is “construct.” Basically, Constructivism is the theory that knowledge must be constructed by a person, not just transmitted to the person. People construct knowledge by taking new information and integrating it with their own pre-existing knowledge (Cooper, 2007; Woolfolk, 2007). When trying to learn the applications of Constructivism, it is good to know the theory first.

"Jean Piaget" by josemota is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. 

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Constructivism

Jean Piaget was one of the major constructivists in past history. His theory looks at how people construct knowledge cognitively. In Piaget’s theory, everybody has schemes. People organize and structure knowledge and information. This organization, or structure, of knowledge and information is known as a scheme. For example, “food” can have a scheme. It can be organized into different food groups such as the following: bread/ pastas, fruits, vegetables, meats, dairy, and sweets (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007).

According to Piaget’s theory, one way people construct knowledge is through assimilation. People assimilate when they incorporate new knowledge and information into pre-existing schemes. Here is an example. A child sees a car and learns that it can be called a vehicle. Then the child sees a motorcycle and learns that it can be called a vehicle as well. Then the child sees a truck and calls it a vehicle. Basically, the child developed a scheme for “vehicles” and incorporated trucks into that scheme (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007).

Another way people construct knowledge, according to Piaget’s theory, is through accommodation. People accommodate when they modify or change their pre-existing schemes. Here is an example. A child sees a dog (a furry four-legged animal) and learns that it can be called a pet. Then the child sees a cat (a furry four-legged animal) and learns that it can be called a pet as well. Then the child sees a raccoon (also a furry four-legged animal) and calls it a pet. Afterwards, the child learns from his or her parents that a raccoon is not a pet. At first, the child develops a scheme for “pet” which includes all furry four-legged animals. Then the child learns that not all furry four-legged animals are pets. Because of this, the child needs to accommodate his or her scheme for “pet.” According to Piaget, people learn through a balance of assimilation and accommodation (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007).

"Lev Vygotsky" by josemota is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. 

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Constructivism

Lev Vygotsky was another major constructivist in past history. While Jean Piaget’s theory is a cognitive perspective, Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural perspective. His theory looks at how people construct knowledge by collaborating with others. In Vygotsky’s theory, people learn and construct knowledge within the Zone of Proximal Development. People have an independent level of performance where they can do things independently. Likewise, people have an instructional level of performance where they can do things above the independent level with the help and guidance of others. The range, or zone, between these two levels is the Zone of Proximal Development (Cooper, 2007; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007; Woolfolk, 2007).

In the Zone of Proximal Development, assistance needs to be given by another person. This assistance, help, or guidance is known as scaffolding. Because the zone has a range, assistance needs to be given, but not too much. If not enough assistance is given, a person may not be able to learn the task. On the other hand, if too much assistance is given, the person may not be able to fully construct the new acquired information into knowledge. For example, a child needs help doing math homework. With no help, the child may not be able to do it. With too much help, the homework is done for the child, so the child may not fully understand the math homework anyway (Cooper, 2007; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007; Woolfolk, 2007).

Constructivism in the Classroom

In the classroom, the teacher can use Constructivism to help teach the students. The teacher can base the instruction on the cognitive strategies, experiences, and culture of the students. The teacher can make the instruction interesting by correlating it with real life applications, especially applications within the students’ own communities. Students can work and collaborate together during particular activities. The teacher can provide feedback for the students so they know what they can do independently and know what they need help with. New concepts can be related to the students’ prior knowledge. The teacher can also explain how new concepts can be used in different contexts and subjects. All these ideas are based on Constructivism(Sherman & Kurshan, 2005).

Research shows that constructivistic teaching can be effective. According to research conducted by Jong Suk Kim at Chungnum National University in Korea, constructivistic teaching is more effective than traditional teaching when looking at the students’ academic achievement. The research also shows that students have some preference for constructivistic teaching (Kim, 2005). Again, when the theory of Constructivism is actually applied in the classroom, it can be effective for teaching students.

Response from the Author

According to the research, incorporating constructivistic teaching into the classroom is a good idea. Allowing students to work together can be beneficial; however, there may be a problem with time management if the classroom management is not under control. Correlating new concepts to real life applications is a great way to further develop students’ schemes. Again, the problem with doing this may be time management. With all the material that needs to be covered throughout the school year due to standardized testing, it is possible that real life applications can become “irrelevant” because they won’t be on the standardized tests.

Based on Constructivism, it can be argued that rote memorization is not real learning. Rote memorization requires no assimilation or accommodation. It is like putting information on a solitary island all by itself. Once the information has served its temporary purpose, it will just float away. By assimilating new information into pre-existing schemes, this problem can be avoided.

The last point is that it is not the sole responsibility of the teachers to educate the students. According to Constructivism, students have some responsibilities when learning. A student may be quick to blame the teacher for not understanding the material, but it could be the case that the student it not doing everything he or she could be doing. Because knowledge is constructed, not transmitted, students need to make an effort to assimilate, accommodate, and make sense of information. They also need to make an effort to collaborate with others, especially if they are having a hard time understanding the information.

Reference List

Cooper, Ryan. (2007). Those Who Can, Teach ( 11th ed. ). Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Kail, Robert V., & Cavanaugh, John C. (2007). Human Development: A Life-Span View ( 4th ed. ). Canada: Thomson Learning, Inc.

Kim, Jong Suk. (2005). The Effects of a Constructivist Teaching Approach on Student Academic Achievement, Self-Concept, and

Sherman, Thomas M., & Kurshan, Barbara L. (2005). Constructing Learning: Using Technology to Support Teaching for

Woolfolk, Anita. (2007). Educational Psychology ( 10th ed. ). Boston, New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

This page titled 3.4: What is constructivism? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 2.4: What is constructivism? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

3.5: What is the difference between teacher-centered vs. student-centered philosophies?

By: Hope Gibbs

Learning Targets

Readers will be able to understand the differences of teacher-centered philosophies and student-centered philosophies.

Introduction

In today’s school, there are essentially two types of teaching philosophies. Both types will be different in their teaching styles; however, both want the best for their students. So what kind of teachers am I talking about? I am talking about teacher-centered and student centered teachers. Their philosophies are different. What type are you? Your ideas and attitudes about education will help shape what kind of teacher you want to be.

."fall 2012 hackNY student hackathon" by hackNY is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. 

Students vs. Teachers

Even though both teacher-centered and student-centered teachers what to help the students learn, they are like night and day in their approaches. Teacher-centered philosophies focus around essentialism and perennialism. Some of the most popular student-centered philosophies include progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism. According to Mary P. Driscoll, “teacher-centered and student-centered views put primacy on the learning of the student, and all other aspects of the learning environment and instruction are planned from that initial standpoint” (1999).

What are Teacher-Centered Philosophies?

Teacher-centered philosophies are the ones you are probably most familiar with. These philosophies focus on what the teacher wants his or her students to learn. There are a lot of factors that determine what kind of teaching philosophies to use. Shawn A. Faulkner and Christopher M. Cook state that “the state tests seem to drive the curriculum and warrant more teacher-focused instructional methods—lecture, worksheets, and whole-class discussion” (2006). We remember this from our own experiences in school. Do you remember when you were in class and the teacher was in front and she lectured to you? Everyone student remembers taking notes off of the blackboard. These are just two examples of teacher-centered practices. Kathy Brown clarifies that “the teacher-centered approach is associated chiefly with the transmission of knowledge” (2003). Getting the knowledge out and to the student is the main focus. The students are accountable for what they have learned and the teachers are also. Teachers are in control and they plan out activities and learning strategies according to specific times during the lesson (Teacher Vision). Teacher-centered philosophies that are mostly used in teaching include essentialism and perennialism. Let us briefly look at these two philosophies.

1. Essentialism in the Classroom

In the excerpt of the book Teachers, Schools, and Society: A Brief Introduction to Education, authors David Miller Sadker, Ph.D and Karen R. Zittleman, Ph.D state how “Essentialism strives to teach students the accumulated knowledge of our civilization through core courses in the traditional academic disciplines” (2007). What this means is that our society has certain viewpoints and practices that schools must pass down to students in a more authoritarian way. According to William Gaudelli, who is an assistant professor of social studies education at the University of Central Florida, “essentialists concern themselves with teaching students how to survive, succeed in their lives, and not be a burden to others” (Gaudelli, 2002). Essentialist teachers believe that what they teach will help their students in real-life situations as they grow older (Gaudelli, 2002). In the classroom, you will most likely see traditional subjects such as math, English, science, and history as the foundations of learning. “Essentialist teachers rely on achievement tests scores to evaluate progress and teachers expect that students will leave school not only with basic skills, but also disciplined, practical minds that are capable of applying lessons taught in school in the real world” (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). In essence, teachers want their students to be able to use what they have learned in school and use it appropriately in the real world.

2. Perennialism in the Classroom

Perennialism and essentialism may sounds somewhat alike, but perennialists are in fact different in their approaches. “Perennialists recommend that students learn directly from the “Great Books”—works by history’s finest thinkers and writers, books meaningful today as when they where first written” (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). “Perennialist generally prefer a past orientation, because it tends to be based on historical truth, rather than conjecture about the present and guessing about the future” (Gaudelli, 2002). This means that perennialists believe that a student can be influence by such heroes in our past like Washington and Lincoln. In a perennialist classroom, the teacher will focus on the importance of reading and will often use the underlying reading lessons to make a moral point (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). These teachers want to teach their students how to be excellent leaders in society just like history portrays.

What are Student-Centered Philosophies?

Student-centered learning is just what is says. It is basically learning by doing. Teachers believe that education should be child-centered. According to Julie K. Brown, she basically says that “student-centered instruction is when the planning, teaching, and assessment revolve around the needs and abilities of the students” (2008). This is quite the opposite from what you have just read. “Regardless of variations in developmental levels, all children are exposed to the same content in the same time period and the teacher’s role is to facilitate growth by utilizing the interests and unique needs of students as a guide for meaningful instruction” (Teacher Vision). According to Becky A. Smerdon and David T. Burkam, “students develop analytic skills that can be applied to other problems and situations, rather than accept their teachers’ explanation” (1999). This technique gives the students the chance to use their abilities and experiences to solve problems and find new ways of learning. One example of this would be if a math teacher lets his or her students work in groups to solve different problems or let students create their own test. With student centered learning, students and teachers are committed to working together and finding the best achievable way of learning.

1. Progressivism in the Classroom

“Progressivisms build the curriculum around the experiences, interests, and abilities of students, and encourage students to work together cooperatively” (Sadker and Zittleman). The progressivist teacher would use games like Monopoly or Jeopardy to illustrate important points. Unlike Perennialists, Progressivists do not believe in teaching “Great Books,” but use “computer simulations, field trips, and interactive websites on the Internet to offer realistic learning challenges for students, and build on students’ multiple intelligences” (Sadkier and Zittleman, 2007). Many props are used to expand the students’ abilities and to make them think a little differently. Instead of just lecturing to students, teachers try to find more interesting ways to communicate important learning techniques and this “affords students opportunities to explore ideas and construct knowledge based on their own observations and experiences” (Smerdon and Burkam, 1999). Teachers ultimately serve as their students’ guide and they want their students to use problem-solving strategies they have learned in class to help manage the challenges of life.

2. Social Reconstructivism in the Classroom

“Social Reconstructionism encourages schools, teachers, and students to focus their studies and energies on alleviating pervasive inequities, and as the name implies, reconstruct into a new and more just social order” (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Social reform is the key to this type of philosophy and social challenges and problems help guide teachers with their message. A social reconstructionist teacher wants to not only inform their students, but rouse emotions and point out the inequalities that surround them and the world (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). The teacher engages the students to discuss and address problems such as poverty, homelessness, violence and many more issues that create disparity. The teacher’s role is to explore social problems, suggest alternate perspectives, and assist students’ examinations of these problems (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). For examples in the classroom, “one group of students might analyze news coverage of racial and ethic groups of a community or students might arrest and trial records in order to determine the role race plays in differential application of the law” (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). The main focus of this philosophy is to help students find ways to improve society. The teacher wants the student to value society and realize that there is unfairness in the world and it is important to be aware and act as advocates for those who are being judged.

3. Existentialism in the Classroom

Existentialism is another student-centered philosophy. “Existentialism places the highest degree of importance on student perceptions, decisions, and actions” and individuals are responsible for determining for themselves what is true or false, right or wrong, beautiful or ugly (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). To sum it up, students make choices and then take the time to evaluate those choices. “The teacher’s role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and by creating an environment in which they can freely choose their way” (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). This philosophy means that students think for themselves and are aware of responsibilities assigned to them. Existentialism philosophies say no to tradition and focuses on the students’ unique talents. The teacher views each student as an individual and students learn how to achieve their full potential by trying new concepts.

Conclusion

There are many philosophies that come along with teacher and student-centered teaching. Which one is the best? It depends on the content being taught. Research indicates that teachers’ personal and professional characteristics are related to how they teach (Smerdon and Berkam, 1999). The way a teacher feels comfortable with the subject matter may influence him or her on how the subject will be taught. The most important goal is to teach the students and help them prepare for life after school. Both teacher-centered and student-centered philosophies can achieve that for the student.

References

Brown, K.L. From teacher-centered to learner-centerd curriulum: Improving learning in diverse classrooms. Retrieved September 18, 2008, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3673/is_200310/ai_n9332034

Brown, J. K. (2008). Student-Centered Instruction: Involving Students in Their Own Education. Music Educators Journal, 94(5), 30-35.

Driscoll, M.P. Reconceptualizing processes and agents of learning in an environment perspective. Retrieved September 14, 2008, from http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/lwf/dl/driscoll_.pdf

Faulkner, S.A. (2006). Testing vs. Teaching: The Perceived Impact of Assessment Demands on Middle Grades Instructional Practices. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 29(7), 1-13.

Gaudelli, W. (2002). U.S. Kids Don’t Know U.S. History: The NAEP Study, Perspectives, and Presuppositions. The Social Studies (Washington, D.C.), 93(5), 197-201.

Sadker, D. & Zittleman K. (2007). Teachers School and Society: A Brief Introduction to Education. 207-217. Retrieved September 14, 2008, from http://education.com/reference/article/Ref_Teacher_Centered

Smerdon, B.A. & Burkam, D.T. (1999). Access to Constructivist and Didactic Teaching: Who Gets It? Where Is It Practiced? Teachers College Record, 101(1), 5-30.

TeacherVision. Learned-Centered vs. Curriculum-Centered Teachers: Which Type Are You? Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/teaching-methods-and-management/curriculum-planning/4786.html.

This page titled 3.5: What is the difference between teacher-centered vs. student-centered philosophies? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 2.5: What is the difference between teacher-centered vs. student-centered philosophies? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

This chapter presents an insightful exploration of various educational philosophies and teaching methodologies, underlining their unique approaches and impacts on the learning environment. 

• Constructivism, highlighted for its emphasis on knowledge being actively constructed by the learner, contrasts sharply with teacher-centered philosophies like essentialism and perennialism, which focus on knowledge transmission from teacher to student. Plato's influence through the Socratic method introduces an interactive, question-based learning approach, further enriching the educational landscape. 

• The chapter also delves into the differences between teacher-centered and student-centered philosophies, where the former prioritizes structured, content-focused teaching and the latter emphasizes student engagement and individual learning experiences. 

• The rich tapestry of educational theories and practices offers diverse perspectives on teaching and learning, underscoring the importance of aligning educational strategies with specific learning objectives and student needs. 

1. How do the principles of Constructivism, as advocated by theorists like Piaget and Vygotsky, challenge or complement traditional teacher-centered educational philosophies such as Essentialism and Perennialism? Discuss the potential impacts of these contrasting approaches on student engagement and learning outcomes.

2. Reflect on the Socratic method introduced by Plato and its relevance in modern education. How does this method of inquiry and dialogue align with or differ from current student-centered teaching philosophies like Progressivism or Existentialism?

3. Considering the differences between teacher-centered and student-centered philosophies, what are the potential advantages and disadvantages of each approach in preparing students for real-world challenges and lifelong learning? How can educators balance these approaches to meet diverse student needs and educational goals?

Further Reading 

• https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Fresno_City_College/Education_30%3A_Introduction_to_Education_(Perez)/03%3A_Educational_Philosophy

Philosophical Foundations of American Education

• Educational Philosophy 3.1-3.4 by Kidd et. al 

• What is an Educational Philosophy? By Beasley and Haulmark 

• Ethics 3.7 by T. Burrell What does it mean to be an ethical teacher?