Introduction

Effective classroom management in California, both in general and special education settings, relies on the collaborative roles and functions of teachers and other school personnel. Teachers play a crucial role in creating a positive and inclusive learning environment by setting clear expectations, fostering relationships, and employing evidence-based strategies to engage students. In special education, collaboration with paraprofessionals, special education teachers, and support staff becomes essential in addressing the unique needs of students with disabilities. This collaborative effort involves individualized education plan (IEP) development, tailored instructional approaches, and ongoing communication with families and specialists. Together, these professionals work to ensure that all students have access to quality education and receive the support necessary for their academic and social growth, reflecting California's commitment to inclusive and equitable schooling. 

11.1: What is the importance of keeping students engaged in learning?

By Carol Halligan

Introduction

How did you learn in school? If your learning experience was like mine, the teacher lectured and I took notes. I didn’t look at or study my notes until the night before my test. My goal was to memorize, not learn. What could have been done differently to make my learning experience more effective? Confucius said “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand” (Stalheim-Smith, 1998, p. 3). Emphasizing "I do and I understand," educational research writers Chickering and Gamson write, "Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves" (Chickering & Gameson, 1987, paragraph 14).

What Chickering and Gamson are referring to is “active learning.” Active learning means “hands on” working on things, and “minds on” reflecting upon the work which engages the student in learning.

As future teachers, we owe it to our students to go beyond traditional methods of teaching which is lecturing and taking notes to more active learning methods that help students become involved in their own education.

Note

Confucius said “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”

To add more insight to Confucius' wisdom, Lynn Schultz, Old Dominion University Educational Instructor writes, "We learn...(taken from an old proverb) 10% of what we read, 20% of what we hear, 30% of what we see, 50% of what we both see and hear, 70% of what we discuss with others, 80% of what we experience personally, and 95% of what we teach to someone else" (Schultz, n.d.).

Active Learning Strategies

In this article, we are going to look at the benefits of moving teachers away from lecturing which is “teacher-centered instruction” to facilitating or coaching which is “student-centered learning” (All, n.d., table). Below are six strategies to aid in this process.

Short Lecture, Class Exercise, and Review

In traditional learning, teachers often lecture for long periods of time and students take notes. Research has shown that students will learn more when lectures are broken down into small segments, followed by a class exercise. Class exercises help you as the teacher to know if the student understands what you have just taught them, and also fosters questions. Following the class exercise, provide a summary of what was learned (Calegari & Moulthrop, n.d.). For example, if the subject you are teaching is math, provide math problems to test the student’s understanding. If the subject is history or literature, have the students write what they learned from your discussion (University, 2001). After the students have completed the class exercise, review their answers as a group to ensure their understanding of the lesson, followed by a summation of what they learned highlighting important ideas and concepts. This strategy of a short lecture, class exercise, and review is a more active way of learning than the traditional method of long lecturers and note taking.

Peer Teaching

To make learning even more active, research indicates peer teaching (students teaching students) is a very effective way to learn. Lynn Schultz, Old Dominion University Educational Instructor writes, "We learn...(taken from an old proverb)...95% of what we teach to someone else" (Schultz, n.d.). From my own teaching experience, I think that this statement is very true. It is human nature to want to be prepared when speaking in front of a group of people. You create a lesson plan that you feel comfortable with, and become an expert in the process. You dive into the content of the material preparing for any type of question that may come your way. Peer teaching not only teaches content material, but communication skills as well. Peer teaching doesn’t have to be teaching to an entire class, but can be applied to small groups, or groups that include only two students (University, 2001). Publications written at the Center for Teaching and Learning indicate “Students are more willing to share their views in small groups and often develop deeper insights about the material than they would be working alone” (University, 2001, paragraph 3). Peer teaching can be applied in many content areas. It can be used to teach a complex problem, or as simple as teaching student’s spelling words, vocabulary, or math facts allowing each student to be the teacher as well as the student.

Cooperative Learning Groups, and Debate Teams

Another active learning strategy is Cooperative Learning. Cooperative Learning means grouping students together to learn from one another to achieve an educational goal. Success which is reaching the educational goal is based on how well the members work together and help each other. Failure from one of the members will have a negative impact on the group's success (Chapter, 2004). A good example of Cooperative Learning is this Wikibooks project we are working on. Each student explores a topic that falls under the umbrella of Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment. The students are active in researching their topic, reflecting upon it, and writing about what they have learned. After the articles are written, peers review articles providing information on ways to improve an article’s content. After reviewing articles, the class as a whole will study all topics researched by the group. The entire Wikibooks project is a cooperative effort that engages the student in learning.

In addition to Cooperative Learning groups, another effective way to learn is to group students into teams that take different positions on a topic and debate them. Again this style of learning is cooperative and engaging as members of a group explore a topic to debate. In addition, there is an element of stress involved in a debate competition that can only put some pressure on the group to fully understand what they are debating.

Role Playing, Case Studies, and Simulations

To add real life experiences to a student's learning, role playing, case studies, and simulations are effective strategies to use. For example, role playing allows the student to put themselves in the shoes of another person, teaching them empathy and understanding of people’s differences or situations. Role playing can also be used to teach a process where the student goes through steps to learn a concept (Active, 1993).

Case studies also deal with real life. They are based on research of real life problems. Case studies examine a problem and leave out “analysis” and “conclusions” forcing the student to be the “decision maker” using his or her “analytical and problem solving skills” to come up with a solution to the problem (Active, 1993, page 2).

Simulations are another way to imitate real life. They are very similar to case studies where they put the student in the decision maker role. The student learns to problem solve using a simplified version of the real world problems. These simulations are a great way to bridge in-class examples with real life (Florida, 2008). There are many software applications on the web today that can be downloaded to educate the student in real life events. In addition, you can take these simulation examples and apply it to role playing, or case study activities.

Games

Games, another active learning strategy, are always a fun way to engage a student in learning. You can find many game ideas on the web to incorporate in your curriculum. For example, play the baseball game by splitting the class into two teams. Ask batters a question, and if he or she gets the answer right advance a base, but if answered wrong it’s an out. Play the game as if you are playing baseball and have students mark outs and runs on the chalkboard (Harrison, n.d.). Another fun game is classroom Jeopardy which is a lot like the television version of Jeopardy. This a good review game where the teacher provides the answer to a question and the student must write down the question. For example, if the teacher was reviewing multiplication math facts, the techer might say 27 and students who wrote 3X9 would win points. The student with the most points at the end of the game would win a prize like being the first student in the lunch line or the first student out at the playground for recess (Whiteboard, 2002).

Journals and Portfolios

Other active learning strategies include journals and portfolios. Journals and portfolios aid the student in tracking their learning progress (Florida, 2008). Journals and portfolios can be a compilation of the student’s work over time, perhaps in nine-week increments, or for the entire school year. It is a great way for tracking what a student came to the class knowing, how they progressed in their learning, and a reflection on what they have learned.

Traditional Learning versus Active Learning

Based on research it appears that applying active learning methods can really engage a student in learning so that more knowledge is retained and understood. But, one major concern of active learning is that it may be too time intensive and because of this, SOL requirements that test a vast amount of knowledge might not be met. Is it possible to implement active learning strategies and cover all necessary SOL material? I suppose the best way to answer this question, is to look at research. At Newsome Park Elementary School in Newport News Virginia, the school changed from a traditional learning program to an active learning program and their SOL test scores rose. Based on the schools statistics, “...between 1997 and 2000, the percentage of fifth graders passing the Virginia Standards of Learning test increased from 35 percent to 65 percent in math, 52 percent to 79 percent in science, and 53 percent to 65 percent in English” after active learning practices were implemented (Curtis, 2001, paragraph 15). To view a multimedia video on the active learning successes that took place at Newsome Park Elementary School go to http://www.edutopia.org/more-fun-barrel-worms.

Another concern of active learning is that it appears ideal only in small classrooms of fewer than 20 students, but when you get into teaching larger classes of greater than 20 students it may be impractical to use active learning strategies. There may be too much noise and confusion in large classes using active learning strategies. The traditional method of teaching would provide order. According to educators from North Carolina State University, they disagree and feel "the larger the class, the more essential it is to use active learning" (Felder & Brent, 1999, paragraph 9). They suggest that large classes be divided into small groups of 2 or 3 students. After a specific amount time has lapsed, stop the group's activity, and direct a question to one member of the group. Asking questions directed to one of the group's members will ensure everyone is on their toes, because any member can be asked at random to answer a question for the team (Felder & Brent, 1999).

Conclusion

Active learning is a change from the traditional education method of lecturing, taking notes, and testing. It enables the student to become an active participant in their learning process which makes a student’s quest for knowledge a more enlightening experience. As Confucius said, “I do and I understand.”

References

Active Learning: Getting Students to Work and Think in the Classroom. (1993, Fall). Speaking of Teaching: Standford University Newsletter on Teaching, vol. 5, No. 1. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from ctl.stanford.edu/Newsletter/active_learning.pdf

All Children Must Be Ready for a Different World. (n.d.). Retrieved February 1, 2008 from http://cnets.iste.org/intro2.html

Calegari N.,& Moulthrop D., (2006, February). Lead, don’t lecture: A new approach to learning, in Edutopia Magazine. Retrieved February 1, 2008, from http://www.edutopia.org/lead-dont-lecture

Chapter 1: Cooperative Learning Overview. (2004, October). InTime: Integrating new technologies into the methods of education. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from www.intime.uni.edu/coop_learning/ch1/definition.htm

Chickering A., & Gamson Z., (1987, March). “Seven principles for good practice,” AAHE Bulletin 39: 3-7. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from http://web.archive.org/20040118192529/honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/7princip.htm

Curtis D., (2001, October). More fun than a barrel of…worms?!, in Edutopia Magazine. Retrieved February 1, 2008, from http://www.edutopia.org/more-fun-barrel-worms

Felder R., & Brent R., (1999). FAQs II: Active learning vs. covering the syllabus; Dealing with large classes. Retrieved February 17, 2008 from http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Columns/FAQs-2.html

Florida State University, Center for Teaching and Learning. (2008). Chapter 8: Using active learning in the classroom. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from the Center for Teaching and Learning Web site: learningforlife.fsu.edu/ctl/explore/onlineresources/docs/Chptr8.pdf

Harrison, J. (n.d.). #165. Games that teach, in Teachers.Net Lesson Exchange. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from http://teachers.net/lessons/posts/165.html

Schultz, L. (n.d.). We learn (taken from an old proverb). Retrieved February 1, 2008 from Lynn Schultz, Lecturer, Instructional Technology Web site: www.odu.edu/educ/llschult/we_learn.htm

Stalheim-Smith, A. (1998). Focusing on active, meaningful learning (Kansas State University Idea Paper No. 34). Retrieved February 1, 2008, from www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/15/67/11.pdf

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Center for Teaching and Learning. (2001, January). Course planning and teaching. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from the Center for Teaching and Learning Web site: ctl.unc.edu/hpl5.html

Whiteboard Jeopardy-Style Game. (2002, January). Retrieved February 15, 2008 from Education World Web site: http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/02/lp251-03.shtml

This page titled 11.1: What is the importance of keeping students engaged in learning? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 11.1: What is the importance of keeping students engaged in learning? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

11.2: Is positive discipline all about being nice?

by Mary Parker

Introduction

How should teachers, parents, and babysitters deal with children? Should they work as a team or should adults be on an entirely different level than their students? All children respond to authority in a unique way. Naturally, kids like to push their limits, test their boundaries, and see what they can and can not get away with. Discipline can be separated into two different categories: positive discipline or negative discipline. I have had a lot of experience working in classroom settings, not only as a student, but also as a volunteer, camp counselor, and as a teaching assistant. I have been exposed to many different personalities of teachers such as calm, stressed, easy-going, aggressive, and even frustrated teachers. Throughout my education, I was mainly taught using negative means of discipline. It is easy to recall students who, no matter how many times they had been sent to the principal's office, never seemed to correct their behavior. Could there be a better relationship between the adult and child that could have led to fewer trips to the office and better performance in the classroom? I am an avid believer in positive discipline because I have seen a classroom where it has been successful. Yet, I have also been exposed to classrooms where students get their work done because the teacher is strict and did not tolerate misbehavior. What is the solution? Should children constantly be praised for their good behavior or reprimanded when they act out? Are teachers required to punish in order to maintain respect as an authority figure. It is important to understand:

1. What positive discipline is, and how it compares to negative discipline.

2. How to apply positive reinforcement in the classroom.

3. Understand how Positive Reinforcement can work.

What is Positive Discipline?

Jane Nelson, who according to Alice Yand a publication manager for the Northeartern Foundation for Children, has written a very inspirational book on Positive Discipline and illustrates to her readers how to implicate it in and out of the classroom. Nelson states that, "Positive Discipline is based on the understanding that discipline must be taught and that discipline teaches" (Positive Discipline Associates). There are several different components that combine to define positive discipline. A few of these factors include: mutual respect between teacher and student, understanding the drive behind bad behavior, efficient correspondence, discipline that allows learning, focusing on improvement rather than reprimand, and encouragement (Positive Discipline Associates). Along with these aspects of guidance through positive reinforcement, consistency is also crucial in this method of teaching. When teachers use this type of reinforcement, children are acknowledged for the things they are doing right, rather than receiving attention for what they have done wrong.

What is Negative Discipline?

According to Dictionary.com, Negative Discipline can be described as punishment that denounces a child's behavior. Often, reprimands are given to the kids that act up and the child is punished in front of the class. Children crave attention, whether it is positive or negative, and will take extreme measures to be noticed by the adults in their lives. When a child is corrected in front of the other children, sent to the office, or even yelled at, they are receiving attention that they crave. Should students try and lash out to obtain negative attention from their teachers? The Institution of Educational Statistics states that some people believe that being stern is the way to get children to be corporative and respect authority. Also, it is understood that if there is a strong sense of power in the classroom, students will not test their limits. If children gain the understanding that they will not be chastised for their bad behavior, they may not comply with the rules. Negative Discipline has been in classrooms for decades, children have been exposed to referrals, suspension, time-out, and even spanking. There have been many schools that base their education on negative discipline and the results have been successful. Why is there a need to change now?

Note

Positive Discipline Phrases:

"Do the right thing."

"Gentle Hands."

"I'm sorry he knocked you down."

"Do you think that was a good choice?"

"Thank you for doing the right thing."

There is a new method of teaching called Positive Discipline. What components are involved in this new teaching method? S. Doescher and L. Burt of Oregon University, explain that there are many ways to incorporate positive reinforcement into the teaching curriculum. Some ways to apply this method of partnership include:

1. Making positive comments. When students do something desirable, instead of ignoring it. It is crucial for the instructor to address the good behavior. If children realize that others are being praised for their behavior, they may also try to receive encouraging feedback from his or her teacher.

2. Ask for children's input. Everyones opinion matters and even adults tend to pay attention to topics that they are interested in. When teachers inquire students' opinion, they are more likely to be entertained and participate.

3. Body language is essential. Even young people can sense approval through accepting gestures such as eye contact and smiling.

4. Getting on their level. Positive Discipline is defined as a partnership, therefore; children should feel as though they are an important part of the relationship. Some teachers feel as though, "bending, kneeling, or sitting at a children's level" (Doescher and Burt), makes a child feel involved and important.

5. Encourage children to redirect their negative behavior to a positive one. Children learn new things everyday, if students are made aware of positive behaviors they are more likely to want to try new things. An example of redirected a child's attention could be if he or she is trying to take someone else's toy, an instructor can present the idea of a different toy to play with.

6. Ignore actions that are not desirable. When children are performing inappropriate manners, adults should act like they do not see them behaving bad, therefore; they may loose interest in the behavior and do something positive to gain the teacher's attention.

7. Consistency is essential. If a teacher chooses to use Positive Discipline in his or her classroom, they must not change. Children crave structure and fluctuating between methods of discipline will only lead to confusion and frustration, two unhealthy attitudes to have in a classroom.

A Success Story and Conclusion

Katharine Kersey, a professor of Early Childhood Education at Old Dominion University, wrote a book dealing with the idea of Positive Discipline. It is titled The 101s: A Guide to Positive Discipline. In this book, Kersey addresses how to present children with a vigorous classroom experience by highlighting positive behaviors rather than negative. I have experienced many classroom environments as both a student and as an adult. Not only have I been in classrooms where Negative Discipline was the teaching approach being used, but also I have worked in Old Dominion's Early Childhood Development Center and the Old Dominion Day Care. Both centers are avid believers in the use of Positive Discipline. After viewing it first hand, it is obvious that some education institutes can succeed using Positive Reinforcement.

No matter what teaching method is going to be used in a classroom, the instructor must remain consistent and understanding. It is important to understand kids and how to deal with them appropriately. People have different opinions on what works and what does not work for them. Through personal experience, I have seen success stories on both sides of the spectrum. Finally, it all comes down to the idea that although Positive Discipline is a somewhat new teaching tactic, it can work. Whether or not one discipline method is better than the other depends on the teacher and the students. As a teacher, one must find what works for them and try to make their classroom the best environment for his or her students.

References

Dictionary.com. Retrieved 7 February 2009, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/discipline

Doescher and Burt (1995). You, Your Child, and Positive Discipline. Oregon State University Extension Service. Retrieved 7 February 2009, from extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/pdf/ec/ec1452-e.pdf

Institution of Education Sciences (2007); U.S. Department of Education; National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C. Retrieved 7 February 2009, from http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml?src=a

Kersey, Katherine C., Ed.D. (1991). The 101s: A Guide to Positive Discipline, Retrieved 7 February 2009, from http://www.odu.edu/~kkersey/101s/101principles.shtml

Positive Discipline Associates, Inc.(2008); Northeast Foundation; Positive Discipline, Orem, UT. Retrieved 7 February 2009, from http://www.positivediscipline.com/teachers/index.html

This page titled 11.2: Is positive discipline all about being nice? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 11.2: Is positive discipline all about being nice? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

11.3: How can brain research help teachers understand their students?

by Valerie R. Singleton

Learning Objectives

1. The reader will be able to discuss the two main arguments for and against brain base education.

2. The reader will be able to understand recommended educational approaches from brain research and its effects on learning.

3. The reader will gain a base knowledge of how to apply lessons from brain-based learning research to classroom settings.

Introduction

The world of education is becoming more and more complex. Oftentimes the array of educational research and teaching models can be a bit daunting for the novice teacher. How can a new teacher be sure which strategies are the most effective when most teaching strategies have been backed by years and years of research? Most education models seem legitimate and useful and this can be overwhelming. With dropping graduation rates, poor test performance, stretched budgets and the stress of accountability teachers are hard pressed to keep classroom instruction interesting, meaningful and fun. Teachers are now more than ever being challenged with the task of keeping students engaged. There has been a paradigm shift to students becoming active learners and teachers taking on the role of guides to knowledge and learning independence. ( Erlauer, 2003 ) Brain research and its effects on learning is definitely not a new area of research. In the past there have been a variety of theories ranging from right brain vs. left brain learners, gender studies, and many other theories in between. ( Willingham, 2006 ) This article will review the core principles of brain based education, the implications for best teaching practices, and the twelve classroom design principles based on the mainstream research.

What is Brain Based Learning?

Brain-based learning is an instructional-design model based on the idea that learning activities are more effective if they occur in an atmosphere that is compatible with the way the brain learns. Brain based education centers around the principle that learning is more productive if the learner is in a natural, challenging, yet non-threatening environment. Learning is a natural condition of humans. However, humans do not learn to be more effective on the job, or to be more gifted with numbers than words. Humans learn to survive. The main tenet of brain based learning is that if the environment is conducive to natural learning then learning will not only take place, but flourish.

Brain Based Learning: Fact or Fiction

Most researchers of brain-based education would be the first to admit that many of the findings of brain-based learning research are still in the early stages. Two of the pioneer researchers in brain based learning, Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine have published several books and articles on brain based research and have brought focus to the subject. The Caines came up with 12 principles based on brain based research which outlines its implications in the classroom. The 12 principles will be discussed in detail later in the article. But first, it is important to point out that there are some scientists who believe that although neuroscience has made great strides in finding out how the brain works, it is a bit premature to try and use those findings in the classroom. Neuroscience is a vast discipline filled with mystery, and only in the past 15 years have scientist been able to uncover some of those mysteries through use of MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) and PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography). (Erlauer, 2003) Other scientist have cautioned educators from getting drawn in by all the research because many of the findings used to support classroom instructional models is not brain based at all. Most of the research is based mainly on already existing psychological theories based on cognitive research. (Bruer, 1999) Neuroscience and psychology are very similar. The main difference is that neuroscience is the science of the brain and how it functions, and psychology is the science of the mind and human behavior. (Bruer, 1999) Psychology has been considered to be a soft-science for many years. Neuroscience is a hard science. Hard sciences are generally grounded in rigorous methodology and hypothesis formation. Soft sciences are usually not as rigid and there is much room for speculation. John T. Bruer explores this dichotomy in a Phi Deltan Kappan journal article, In Search of…Brain Based Education. Bruer contends that most of the evidence available against traditional models of education can be supported by 30 years of research in constructivism and cognitive development not brain research. (Bruer, 1999 ) As mentioned previously some scientists will agree that brain research has accomplished much in the last decade. Daniel Willingham, a renowned cognitive scientist and professor, cautions educators to be aware of the different levels of analysis present when trying to bridge neuroscience and effective classroom practices.

Nonetheless despite skepticism many scientists have found enough validity in the research to press forward in changing the face of the American classroom. Eric Jensen, Renate Nummela Caine, Geoffrey Caine and Laura Erlauer have designed educational models which integrate brain based research into the classroom. The next section will survey some of the principles and implications their research has had on education.

Integrating Brain Based learning into the Classroom

With all the information out in the world about brain based learning how does a teacher successfully integrate the best teaching practices into their classroom. It is important for a teacher to know that they don’t have to reinvent the wheel. Whenever trying to implement a new strategy into the classroom it is always best to start small. When I first began teaching my aunt, who is also a teacher, told me to never stop learning. She advised me to attend conferences regularly, and pick two good strategies to incorporate into my classroom. I intend to incorporate some of the strategies I have read about in my research with caution. Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine created the 12 mind/brain principles for integrating brain based research into the classroom. According to Renate Caine, “ These principles are not meant to represent the final word on learning. Collectively, they do, however, result in a fundamentally new, integrated view of the learning process and the learner. They move us away from seeing the learner as a blank slate and toward an appreciation of the fact that body, brain, and mind are a dynamic unity.” Following is the complete list of the twelve brain/mind learning principles, as defined by Caine and Caine:

Note

1. The brain is a complex adaptive system.

2. The brain is a social brain.

3. The search for meaning is innate.

4. The search for meaning occurs through patterning.

5. Emotions are critical to patterning.

6. Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes.

7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral attention.

8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.

9. We have at least two ways of organizing memory.

10. Learning is developmental.

11. Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.

12. Every brain is uniquely organized. (Caine and Caine 1997)

Each of these principles has specific implications for the classroom which are fully illustrated in their book Education on the Edge of Possibility. Eric Jensen took the principles base on the Caine research and developed a teaching model which breaks down teaching preparation to three distinct phases. The first phase is the preparation and planning stage, next phase focuses on the learning process and then finally the last stage is for reflection and processing of information. (Jensen, 2005) If a teacher uses Jensen’s teaching model and integrates the following three interactive elements Renate Caine writes about in her book Making Connections then setting up a classroom which takes a brain based approach would be a less challenging process.

• Teachers must immerse learners in complex, interactive experiences that are both rich and real. One excellent example is immersing students in a foreign culture to teach them a second language. Educators must take advantage of the brain’s ability to parallel process.

• Students must have a personally meaningful challenge. Such challenges stimulate a student’s mind to the desired state of alertness.

• In order for a student to gain insight about a problem, there must be intensive analysis of the different ways to approach it, and about learning in general. This is what’s known as the “active processing of experience.” (Caine, 1991)

References

Bruer, J. T. (1999). In search of . . . brain-based education. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(9), 648. Retrieved February 16, 2009, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001256467

Caine, R.N. & Caine, G. (1991). Making connections: Teaching and the human brain. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Caine, R.N. & Caine, G. (1997). Education on the edge of possibility. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Erlauer, L. (2003). The brain-compatible classroom: Using what we know about learning to improve teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved February 10, 2009, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=111485193

Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Willingham, Daniel. (2006). “Brain-based” Learning: More Fiction than Fact. Retrieved February 8, 2009. American Educator. www.aft.org/pubs-reports /american_educator/issues/fall2006/cogsci.htm.

This page titled 11.3: How can brain research help teachers understand their students? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

• 11.3: How can brain research help teachers understand their students? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

11.4: When should students be rewarded or punished?

By Wendy Belgrave

Learning Objectives

• To understand what positive reinforcement means

• Understand there can be drawbacks to any method

• To learn alternative ways of punishment

Introduction

"Great job on figuring out that problem! Way to analyze the data Sarah. And you Nathan! I want you to write me a 500 word essay on why it is important to pay attention and be quiet while class is in session. I'm tired of having to talk to you about this!" Does this seem fair to you? In an ideal world the students would walk into a classroom, and their soft murmurs would come to a halt once the bell rang. They would all take out their paper and pencils, take notes, raise their hand if they had a question or answer, and smile during the entire class period. But this is not fantasy land and we have children coming into our classrooms with all sorts of personalities and issues. A teacher might find it easy to praise their students when they do something good, but what if the students are having a “bad day”? Can you really catch more flies with honey than with vinegar?

Reinforcing A Desired Behavior

Note

“You can win people to your side more easily by gentle persuasion and flattery, than by hostile confrontation (Hirch 1988 p. 49),"

Growing up, receiving a sticker on a gold star at the end of the day was the ultimate feeling for me. The sticker meant a job well done throughout the day. I didn’t know it at the time but that was positive reinforcement at its best. The concept definition of positive reinforcement, according to the Centre of Psychology, occurs when 3 conditions have been met (Grant 1996).

• A consequence is presented dependent on a behavior.

• The behavior becomes more likely to occur.

• The behavior becomes more likely to occur because and only because the consequence is presented dependent on the behavior.

In my observations I have witnessed teachers praise their students. You do not hear the student say how this makes them feel, but you will see their demeanor change when a student is given accolades in front of his or her peers. This provokes a willingness to chime in more often regardless of right or wrong answers. A student named Lee Ray was recognized for his risk taking. His teacher wrote a summary of him saying, "He answers all the questions, correct or not (Lashaway-Bokina 2000 p. 225)." Positive feedback and recognition build self esteem and confidence.

Giving a student a “good job” for a correct answer is always good, but the learning of subject matter is not the only thing that deserves recognition. Rewarding desired behavior is easier than you may think. For instance, you are doing a class project that requires cutting pieces of paper, at the end of the project you notice a student picking up pieces of paper that fell off the desk and throwing them in the trash. This is a perfect opportunity to acknowledge a thoughtful gesture. This in turn tells the other students to do the same without you having to request it. This is much more effective than reminding the students that you are not their parent and won’t pick up after them. Acknowledging good attendance, a pat on the back for team work, and even recognizing special achievements even if they are not related to the class are great ways to build self esteem. Just as important, the recognition of improved behavior or grades is also a great confidence builder. Sending a post card home to the child’s parents is a great way to reinforce positive behavior.

Note

“You must systematically strengthen the behavior you want while systematically weakening the competing behaviors that you do not want. A discipline program, for example, should not only eliminate problem behavior, but it should also systematically build the positive behaviors that you want to replace the problems (Fred Jones).

When Rewarding By Incentives Goes Bad

Some teachers choose to pass out candy or give special privileges for good behavior or for doing certain tasks, but what if there is not an actual reward other than a “thank you”? Student Awards, Rewards, and Recognition says that you mustn’t use rewards as incentives because it sends this message, “if you do this, then you get this.” This may seem too much like bribing. Bloggers on An Unschooling Life, are not fans of the rewards for learning. They believe that the reward for studying is learning. One of the bloggers who is a homeschooling parent said, “If someone had to bribe me to do something, my first thought would be "It must be unpleasant if you have to bribe me to do it." She continued on to say that her daughter would only read if she was given candy while in school.

Peter Callaghan, a writer for The News Tribune, agrees with the home schooling parent about the damage that incentives create. He mentions a school in Washington that was giving a five week course to better scores on reading, writing, and mathematics for an upcoming standardized test. A $79 free IPod Shuffle was offered to every student that signed up. Only 80 failing students had signed up for the test before the incentive was given. The incentive was enough to fill 270 additional slots. “Kids who goof off shouldn’t receive gifts while kids who try hard get nothing extra. Kids shouldn’t be bribed to try to learn something (Callaghan 207).”

Punishment As An Incentive

It would be easier to teach a classroom full of children if there were no children misbehaving. According to Student Teacher Advocate, one third of new teachers leave the teaching field within the first 3 years. The teachers questioned said that they spend an overwhelming amount of time doing other tasks (disciplining included), beyond actual instruction. Forty percent of those teachers surveyed said that they spend more time than expected on disciplining (Miller, Higgins).

Teachers sometimes find punishment to be effective as a classroom behavior management tool, especially as a short term solution. Because punishment tends to rapidly stop problem behaviors, the teacher in turn is positively reinforced for using it (What Every Teacher Should Know About Punishment 2008). Teachers may be tempted to use this technique over and over because of its quick response, but this very sort of punishment can have side effects. Students who are generally punished in this way can overtime develop negative attitudes toward school, can develop an uncomfortable relationship with their teachers, and perhaps feel apprehensive about participating in class activities (What Every Teacher Should Know About Punishment 2008). Discipline and punishment are important parts of rearing children not only at home but in school settings as well.

When people use the word “punish”, it is usually used to describe a negative consequences for a violation. In some schools around the United States punishment can mean physical punishment. Corporal punishment is still allowed in 21 out of 50 states, but is only practiced in 4 of those states; Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi and Tennessee (Farrell). According to C. Farrell, a writer for School Corporal Punishment, paddlings were given in the classroom or right outside the door, but then only the principle had to do the paddling or it was done in front of his or her presence in a private room. Some of the people I spoke to remember being paddled or being hit on the palms with a ruler for horse playing. Educators must be careful and administer punishment with care, especially if it comes in the form of corporal punishment. "Punishments are an expression of violence of the more powerful adult against the weaker child (Cerney 2008 p.51)."

Note

“According to estimates from the federal Department of Education (Office of Civil Rights), there were about 272,000 paddlings of students in the 2004-05 school year -- down from 457,754 only eight years previously. This shows that the rapid decline of the 1980s and early 1990s, which had leveled off by the middle of the 1990s, has now resumed. Total paddlings were equivalent to only 0.6% of the total US school population (Farrell)."

Alternative Ways Of Punishment

Punishment can take on many forms; it can be a reprimand, or a type of punishment known as response cost. Response cost means that a student can have rewards, or privileges taken away when he or she demonstrates problem behavior even if it is only momentarily (What Every Teacher Should Know About Punishment 2008). An example would be that a student on time-out would not be able to join his or her classmates when it is time for playtime until their time-out was over.

Disciplining does not necessarily mean having the child sit in the corner with a dunce hat on, getting paddled, whacked on the hands, or writing sentences. Experienced teachers will say that remaining calm can diffuse an angry disposition more effectively than responding in an equal tone. One of the teachers that I interviewed, Kristin Gorsuch, a high school math teacher from Isle of Wight County, said that when she has a continually disruptive student, she simply asks them to step outside for a minute until she can go outside and discuss in private what she expects. The point is not to intimidate or belittle them in front of their peers. Disciplining does not have to be an aggressive act is what she believes.

You will see and hear what other teachers believe is a good way of “punishing” a student without it being demeaning or embarrassing. Visit this web site for the videos under “What Would You Do?” www.nea.org/classmanagement/discipline.html

Conclusion

Time changes everything. The material taught in schools, the thoughts on child creativity, and classroom management have all been revised over time. The question as to what is a better way to develop productive adults has perplexed people for ages. Should we pat our children on the back for a mediocre job and hope that next time they do better, or should we whoop them into shape, tell them what we expect and show no mercy since the “real world” won’t show them any? As educators we need to build up our children and young adults, evaluate what the problem really is, if any and make a decision based on each child. There is no cookie cutter solution.

References

1. An Unschooling Life: Rewarding (Bribing) Children To Learn. (2008, January 24). Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from http://anunschoolinglife.blogspot.com/2006/06/day-one-hundred.html.

2. Callaghan, P. (2007, July 26). Don’t they know learning is its own reward? | TheNewsTribune.com | Tacoma, WA. Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from www.thenewstribune.com/news/columnists/callaghan/story/118809.html.

3. Cerny, J. (2008). Spare the Rod Spoil the Child. New Presence, 11(2), 51,52. Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from the Academic Search Complete database.

4. Classroom Management. (n.d.). Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from www.nea.org/classmanagement/discipline.html.

5. Farrell, C. (n.d.). CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS. Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from http://www.corpun.com/counuss.htm.

6. Farrell, C. (n.d.). SCHOOL CORPORAL PUNISHMENT: Video clips 2008: United States—real-life paddling (Arkansas high school). Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from http://www.corpun.com/viduss02.htm.

7. Flanery, M. (n.d.). NEA: The 'D' Word. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008, from www.nea.org/neatoday/0509/coverstory.html.

8. Goresuch, Kristin. "Reward or Punishment." Personal interview. 19 Sept. 2008.

9. Grant, L. (1996, January 12). Positive Reinforcement Tutorial. Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm.

10. Hirch Jr, E., Kett, J., & Trefil , J. (1988). The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co..

11. Jones, F. (n.d.). Positive Classroom Discipline - Chapter 18, Discipline Management as an Integrated System. Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from www.fredjones.com/Positive_Discipline/Discipline_Ch18.html.

12. Lashaway-Bokina, , N. (2000). Recognizing and Nurturing Intrinsic Motivation. A Cautionary Tale, 22(4), 225. Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from the Academic Search Complete database.

13. Miller, M., & Higgins, B. (n.d.). Stay A Little Longer. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008, from http://www.kdp.org/publications/studentteacheradvocate/dontbecome.htm.

14. Student Awards, Rewards and Recognition. (2008, April 18). Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008, from www.baudville.com/articles.asp?a=32.

15. What Every Teacher Should Know About Punishment. (n.d.). Retrieved Sep. 17, 2008, from www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interventions/behavior/punishguidelines.php.

This page titled 11.4: When should students be rewarded or punished? is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students.

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11.5: Should students be praised?

By Pam Kennedy

Learning Objectives

The student will understand:

a.) the concept of reinforcement techniques.

b.) the locus of control.

The student will be able to:

a.) determine whether a reinforcer is positive or negative.

b.) apply knowledge of the control locus to situations to determine the motivating factor's origin.

Note

"An issue of prime concern to educators is how to use rewards...to promote

learning without disrupting students' intrinsic interest."—Cameron & Pierce, 1996, p. 40

Introduction

We have all heard that there can be too much of a good thing. In fact, we have most likely all experienced this type of good. For example, I love pizza! I do not eat it very often, because without a doubt, no matter when I last ate pizza, I will eat so much that I am absolutely miserable. Can the same thing be said about things that are less tangible? Specifically, can we offer someone, especially a child, so much praise that we negate the good?

Note

What is Praise?

Merriam-Webster defines praise as both a noun and a verb.

Noun: "An expression of approval. Verb: To offer a favorable judgement."—Merriam-Webster Online, 2005, n.p.

Traditional Behaviorism: A Reinforcement Theory

B. F. Skinner's (1904-1990) operant conditioning theory tells us that a behavior can be increased or decreased through reinforcers (Berk, 18). Reinforcers change the rate of a behavior's occurrence. Steve Booth-Butterfield (1996) expands on this by saying that positive reinforcers, rewards, increase the desired behavior, while negative reinforcers, punishers, are those that decrease the occurrence of an action. Additionally, he tells us to offer no attention at all in order to do away with something entirely (Booth-Butterfield, n.p.).

The Locus of Control

The Journal of Applied Social Psychology (2006) publishes, Icek Ajzen's (2002) concept that control over an individual's behavior depends both on internal and external factors that might change the intended or expected outcome. He theorizes that it is the individual's self-efficacy that determines the roll of external motivators (p. 678). In other words, external stimuli play only a small part when individuals strongly believe in their own inherent ability. However, people with low self-esteem feel they lack the ability to control their own lives, which, in turn, allows external factors to have greater influence over their actions.

The Debate

Controversy exists, not so much with the idea that reinforcement changes behavior, but instead, in how it changes it and for how long. Debate has also arisen over whether or not we inhibit an individual’s natural desire to achieve by offering a reward. Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) meta-analytical study reviewed twenty years of research into this debate. They concluded that rewards, such as praise and positive feedback, were successful motivators as long as performance quality was the basis for the reward (p. 391-395). In this scenario, it is not sufficient to complete a task; the job must be done well.

Critics of this study point out that even Cameron and Pierce’s own data verifies that intrinsic motivation decreases over time when incentives are used (Kohn, 3). For example, in his rebuttal, By All Available Means, Kohn (1996) tells us that only purely informational feedback is effective if one hopes to avoid adverse consequences to an individual’s internal motivation (p. 3). In other words, keep your opinion, good or bad, out of it.

Still others, such as Judge, Erez, Bono, and Thoresen (2002), believe that self-esteem, in conjunction with locus of control, self-efficacy, and neuroticism, is the key factor controlling whether or not extrinsic stimuli effect intrinsic behavior (p. 706-708). For example, praise will have little effect on the end result for a person with high self-esteem, largely, because the level of output produced by this individual is NOT dependent on your opinion, but rather on his/her own level of neuroticism. On the other side, someone who lacks confidence may work diligently for the sole purpose of seeking even some small amount of recognition.

Note

“What's going on is this: Reinforcement theory is a functional theory. That means all of its components are defined by their function (how they work) rather than by their structure (how they look). Thus, there is no Consequences Cookbook where a teacher can look in the chapter, "Rewards for Fifth Grade Boys," and find a long list of things to use as rewarding consequences. Think about this a minute.”

-- Steve Booth-Bloomfied, 1996, n.p.

Limitations

The limiting factor, or the variable, is that all people are different. As such, a particular reinforcer may serve as a reward or a punishment depending on the individual. For example, a mom sends her two children to their rooms as a negative consequence for cutting down her rosebush. The punishment works well with one child who shows appropriate remorse for her actions, while the other child is delighted with the opportunity to play indoors. Anthony Chelte (1998) argues that the reinforcement theory completely ignores an individual’s internal motivation. The implication is that people require the external stimuli. In his view, people seek to accomplish a set task, or reach a predetermined goal, simply because it feels good to know that a job has been done and done well (p.10). In other words, reaching the goal is the reward.

Conclusion

Behavioral scientists concur that reinforcement effects behavior. The above controversy is over proper application. In the educational setting the reinforcement theory’s effectiveness has been weakened by an inability to use it properly. In his article entitled Reinforcement Theory, Steve Booth-Bloomfield (n.d.) tells us that punishment can be a truly effective tool when it is “immediate, intense, and unavoidable." (Booth-Bloomfield, n.p.) He goes on to say that while this tool “has been taken away from the teacher…some teachers persist in using weakened forms of punishment, often with unsuccessful and frustrating effects.” (Booth-Bloomfield, n.p.). It is my opinion that the absence of a good negative consequence not only reduces the lesson’s value, but also takes away from the positive effectiveness of reward. It is simply a matter of expectations! Furthermore, I believe, that actions foster outcomes. As the adult, we must show respect. By respect, I refer to authoritative child rearing principles: We show children (truthfully, all people) a “high level of acceptance” (Berk, 2007, p. 279). This must be offered in conjunction with “firm, reasonable, control” (Berk, 2007, p. 279) that is reduced based on age-appropriate maturity and responsible behavior.

References

Berk, Laura. (2007). Development through the Lifespan (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson, Allyn and Bacon.

Booth-Butterfield, Steve. (1996). Reinforcement Theory. Healthy Influence: Communication for a Change. Retrieved September 13, 2008 from http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/comm221/chapters/rf.htm

Cameron, J. & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, Reward, and Intrinsic Motivation: A Meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64(3), 363-423. Retrieved September 11, 2008 from http://rer.sagepub.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/cgi/reprint/64/3/363

Cameron, J. & Pierce, W. D. (1996). The Debate about Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation: Protests and Accusations Do Not Alter the Results. Review of Educational Research, 66,(1),39-51. Retrieved September 11, 2008 from http://rer.sagepub.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/cgi/reprint/66/1/39

Chelte PhD., Anthony. (1998). Basic Motivation Concepts. Retrieved September 14, 2008 from mars.wnec.edu/~achelte/ob1/lprob05/sld004.htm

Chelte PhD., Anthony. (1998). Basic Motivation Concepts. Retrieved September 14, 2008 from mars.wnec.edu/~achelte/ob1/lprob05/sld010.htm

Judge, T. A., Erez, A. , Bono, J. & Thoresen, C. (2002). Are Measures of Self-Esteem, Neuroticism, Locus of Control, and Genralized Self-Efficacy Indicators of a Common Core Construct? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), 693-710. Retrieved September 14, 2008 from www.radford.edu/~jaspelme/201/Locus%20of%20control.pdf

Kohn, Alfie. (1996). By All Available Means: Cameron and Pierce’s Defence of Extrensic Motivators. Review of Educational Research, 66,(1),1-4. Retrieved September 11, 2008 from http://rer.sagepub.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/cgi/reprint/66/1/1

Merriam-Webster. (2005) Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved September 16, 2008 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary

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• 11.5: Should students be praised? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

11.6: How can students be motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically?

by Christine Stanton

Learning Objectives

• Define, understand and give examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

• Understand opposing theories on motivation

• Describe Self Determinaton Theory and provide examples of how to meet students' needs

Defining Motivation: What makes you move?

mo•ti•va•tion: the act or process of motivating b: the condition of being motivated: a motivating force, stimulus, or influence : INCENTIVE , DRIVE ( Merriam Webster, 2008)

The subject of motivation has been researched and analyzed by countless scholars in various fields such as psychology, philosophy and education. What makes people behave in certain ways? What makes them “move”? In the 1940's, a pioneer of motivation theory, Abraham Maslow, described his own theory on human motivation. He proposed that people have a hierarchy of needs that motivate them to do all things (Maslow, 1946). These basic needs must be met in order of precedence, meaning that the needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be met before the needs at the top of the list can be (Maslow, 1946).

In this model, certain needs must be met in order for a person to be motivated to learn. Later research expands on this idea, as noted in the following sections. In Educational Psychology, it is a common belief that teachers can “motivate” their students by providing an environment or situation that may enhance learning. Researchers have been studying motivation for several decades, attempting to understand how to use motivation to specifically benefit the learning process. Motivation has been classified into two generally accepted forms:

• Intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from within the student (e.g. contentment, enjoyment, pride, sense of accomplishment, responsibility)

• Extrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from an external source (e.g. tangible rewards, trophies, stickers, gifts, applause, praise)

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic?

So, which is better for use in the classroom? Is one more effective than the other? Or can both be used?

On one hand, some could say that extrinsic rewards are more effective and reflective of the "real world" - people aren't motivated to work without paychecks. So does extrinsic motivation prepare students for the "real world"? Or are we just bribing them?

Because intrinsic motivation comes from within, it is considered by many to be the more effective of the two when it comes to learning. Intrinsic motivation can foster life long excitement for learning, resulting in students who are eager to learn new things. Their experience is more meaningful and they go deeper in their learning to fully understand it. It helps develop a student’s attitude towards education and ensures more lasting success. Of course, we all want our children to want to go to school and learn because they enjoy learning. But what about subjects that just don't interest them or that are difficult for them to master? Is it possibly to be intrinsically motivated for all things?

We're back at our question.....which works better? Intrinsic or Extrinsic Rewards? Let's look a little closer at each...

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation can take the form of anything that doesn't come from within a person. Examples range from a smiley face on a paper or a "great job" sticker to a hefty pay raise or bonus for an adult. It can be getting the approval of a teacher or being accepted by peers. Extrinsic motivation can also be negative in the form of punishment or taking rewards away.

Extrinsic motivation may be more effective when a student has a less-desirable task ahead of them. For example, the student who dislikes math, might be more motivated to do well on the math test to get a good grade. Many argue, however, that once the reward is gone, the student will not continue to be motivated (Vockell, 2008). The predominance of researchers seem to agree that intrinsic motivation is more desirable, encouraging a more lasting desire to learn; however, extrinsic motivation is sometimes more popular when the task is not as appealing or if the technique seems to be more effective for the task at hand and for certain types of learners. For example, if Susan hates her math homework and is simply not interested in doing it, it might give her incentive to do her homework if she knows she will get a good grade, a reward or praise from her teacher.

Intrinsic Rewards & Self Determination Theory

Many believe that motivation is the most powerful when it comes from within, rather than from outside forces. Some go farther to describe one or more factors that can promote intrinsic motivation. Some of these factors are challenge, curiosity, control, fantasy, competition, cooperation, or recognition (Vockell, 2008).

Self Determination Theory (SDT) started evolving over 30 years ago with the research of Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan. The basis of their theory is that people have three basic needs: the need for a sense of autonomy, the need for relatedness (or belonging), and the need for competence (Deci & Ryan. 1991). Many theories on teaching motivation have centered on meeting these three needs:

1. Sense of Autonomy - Students need to feel a sense of control and self-determination

2. Sense of Belonging – Students need to feel accepted by peers and teachers

3. Sense of Competence – Students need to feel capable of succeeding

SDT proposes that all individuals have a “seed” for learning and with the right nutrients or environment, they can be encouraged to be self motivated (or intrinsically motivated) (Deci & Ryan, 1991). This implies that if all these basic needs are met for our students, then their natural curiosity and thirst for learning can shine through.

Note

To be self determined is to endorse one's actions at the highest level of reflection. When self determined people experience a sense of freedom to do what is interesting, personally important, and vitalizing. - Edward L. Deci & Richard M. Ryan

Deci & Ryan went even further to claim that extrinsic motivation can undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci et al. 2001). In 1994, Cameron & Pierce challenged this theory saying that the effect of extrinsic rewards was "minimal and inconsequential." Deci and Ryan countered this claim with newer research in 1995 which proved that "tangible rewards do indeed have a substantial undermining effect" (Deci et al. 2001).

Figure 

11.6.2

11.6.2: Image 2, (Adapted from Anderman & Leake, 2005)

An Argument Against Motivation Theories

On the opposite end of the educational motivation research field are some that believe that motivation theories are not valid, such as Steven Reiss. Reiss, a professor of pscyology at Ohio State University, claims that Deci & Ryan and other similarly minded researchers are "taking many diverse human needs and motivations, putting them into just two categories, and then saying one type of motivation is better than another. But there is no real evidence that intrinsic motivation even exists" (Reiss, 2008). Reiss believes that different people can be motivated in different ways and there is no right or wrong way to motivate. "Individuals differ enormously in what makes them happy - for some competition, winning and wealth are the greatest sources of happiness, but for others, feeling competent or socializing may be more satisfying. The point is that you can't say some motivations, like money (or other tangible rewards), are inherently inferior." While some children are "inherently curious", other children are not as much so, for which extrinsic rewards may be more effective. Reiss further argues that extrinsic rewards may encourage students to pursue activities that they would normally have shyed away from.

OVERVIEW

Your third grade class is very active today. The energy level is high as the kids get ready for an end-of-the-day holiday party. But before they can go, they need to finish an important history lesson which they will be quizzed on. You know getting their attention will be hard. What do you do? Do you offer them all a "homework-free" night as a reward for paying attention? You still have a bag of lollipops in your desk for halloween - would that be a good idea? Or if you make it a fun, interactive game will they all jump in and get the job done because they'll be enjoying themselves? Or perhaps giving them the choice of giving up some of their recess in order to spend more time on the history lesson would encourage them to make good choices?

People can be motivated differently for a variety of reasons, from age to culture to special needs. As teachers, we will each have various scenarious where one might work better than another or a combination of the two is a better approach. While many of our actions are motivated extrinsically, intrinsic motivation must be there as well to encourage long term interest and learning. Being aware of different theories (such as intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, self-determination theory) and being flexibile in our methods will be important in order to be the most effective teachers we can be.

References

Anderman, L. & Leake, V. (2005). The ABCs of Motivation: An Alternative Framework for Teaching Preservice Teachers about Motivation. The Clearing House, 78(5), 192-196.

Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self Determination Theory Overview. Retrieved Sept. 18, 2008 from http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/theory.html

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R.,& Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrisic Motivation: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Education Research, 71(1), 1-27.

Grabmeier, J. (2008). Intrinsic Motivation Doesn't Exist, Researcher Says. Retrieved Sept. 18, 2008 from Ohio State Universary Research News Website: researchnews.osu.edu/archive/inmotiv.htm

Lepper, M., Corpus, J., & Iyengar, S. (2005). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivational Orientations in the Classrooms: Age Differences and Academic Correlates. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 97 (2), 184-196.

Maslow, A. H. (1946). A Theory of Human Motivation. In P. Harriman (Ed.), Twentieth Century Psychology: Recent Developments in Psychology (pp. 22–48). New York: Philosophical Library.

Motivation (2008). In Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved Sept. 18, 2008 from Merriam Webster Online Dictionary: http://www.merriam-webster.com

Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G., Blais, M.R., Briere, N.M., Senecal, C. & Vallieres, E.F. (1992) The Academic Motivation Scale: A Measure of Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Amotivation in Education. Educational and Psychological Measurement (52), 1003-1017.

Vockell, E. (2008). Education Psychology: A Practical Approach. Retrieved September 18, 2008 from education.calumet.perdue.edu/Vockell/EdPsyBook

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• 11.6: How can students be motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically? by Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of classroom management, emphasizing its pivotal role in fostering an environment conducive to learning. It explores the significance of student engagement, contrasting positive and negative discipline approaches and introducing innovative strategies such as peer teaching, role-playing, and active learning. 

• The chapter delves into research on understanding diverse student needs, highlighting brain-based learning techniques and the impact of rewards and praise. 

• It also examines traditional behaviorism and reinforcement theory, discussing the balance between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Concluding with a critical examination of various motivational theories.

• The chapter underscores the complexity of student motivation and its importance in effective classroom management, offering educators insights into creating a positive and productive learning environment. 

1. How can teachers effectively balance the use of positive and negative discipline in the classroom to maintain order while promoting a positive learning environment? Discuss the potential impacts of each approach on student behavior and engagement.

2. In what ways can brain-based learning strategies be integrated into traditional teaching methods to enhance student understanding and retention? Reflect on how understanding the neuroscience behind learning can influence teaching styles and student outcomes.

3. Considering the arguments for and against various motivational theories, discuss the relative effectiveness of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation in educational settings. How can educators foster a balance between these two types of motivation to maximize student learning and engagement?

Further Reading

Original Source: 

• https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Fresno_City_College/Education_30%3A_Introduction_to_Education_(Perez)/11%3A_Classroom_Management?readerView

• What is a Positive Classroom Environment: Classroom management by Beasley and Haulmark 

• Direct learning and Discovery methods of teaching by Kidd et. Al 

• 9.1 Environments by Jordan 

11: Job Options in Education Read Chapter 13 Happy Thanksgiving! 

• What Can a new teacher expect by beasley and Haulmark 

13: Professionalism in the Field/Bloomy Taxonomy Read Chapter 15 

• Why teachers leave the profession by Wolff 

• Professionalism by coleman et al 7.2 

• Teaching is Different From in the Past 8.8 

• Why use Bloom’s Taxonomy?