Chapter-1

Feudalism, Church Rule, Renaissance, Reformation, English, American & French Revolution, Unification of Germany & Italy

Feudalism, Church Rule, Emergence of Merchant Class

Feudalism

§ Medieval Period in Europe was the period from 600 AD to 1500 AD

§ Derived from the word ‗feud‘, which means ‗conditional ownership of land‘

Feudalism developed due to lack of a single central political authority in Western Europe as it had disintegrated into many small and big kingdoms. In such a system the local Lords became more powerful than the King and controlled the affairs of the society.

Features

§ Land, not money, was the main source of power

§ Lack of a central political authority + numerous Feudal Lords controlled the affairs of the society + King was not very powerful.

Villages based economy which was self-sufficient and produced little surplus for trade. The peasants worked on the land of the Feudal Lord & were exploited by the Feudal Lords.

‗Serfdom‘ became an important feature of Feudalism. Whatever was produced on the Manor was consumed by the Lord and the inhabitants, while very little was traded.

[Serfs: they worked on the land of the Lord for free and had to perform all labour for him as he desired. They were not free and were tied to the land. This meant that their owners changed with the change in ownership of the land from one Lord to another. This system came to be known as Serfdom.]

The Feudal Hierarchy consisted of the King at the top. Noblemen below the King were also arranged in a hierarchy of overlords and subordinate lords. Every nobleman was a vassal, of and only of his overlord.

This hierarchical system was unbreachable i.e. a lower Lord would only follow commands of his immediate overlord and not of Lords further higher in the hierarchy.

Further, any Lord himself was not the direct owner of the land under him. He held land in the name of his overlord. Thus legally, all territory belonged to the King. Each Lord had his own soldiers and was the sole authority in his estate. Thus there was no central authority in

functional terms and King was a central authority only in legal terms resulting in very little political unity.

The Church Rule

Once the rulers in Europe accepted Christianity, the Pope, who headed the Roman Catholic Church, became the head of the Christian world in Western Europe. By the 6th century, the Pope often wielded more power than the King and could make him follow his orders.

Initially, the Monasteries were institutes of high learning & monks worked to uplift people‘s moral life and for welfare of the poor. But soon, corruption crept into the monasteries. In the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) the Church‘s evils took the form of:

§ Money for Church posts + Money for every ritual + Church owned & amassed huge property.

§ Money for removing sins. For example, the Church started selling ―Letters of Indulgence‖ which upon their purchase removed the need for doing pilgrimages for removal of sins.

§ The Church was the only institution for education in the medieval time but becoming a Monk was the only future prospect this education offered. They taught in Latin which was not understood by the common man.

§ Church made ―once in a year‖ confession of sins to the Father compulsory and the breach of this rule mandated punishment.

§ Pope, nuns, bishops etc. became corrupt & lived like princes

Logic, Reason and Science were discouraged. There was wide belief in witches, superstition and magic. Church became violent. It ordered burning of people who opposed its ideas about God, religion and even the physical phenomena. This was done on charges of ―Heresy‖.

Many scientific thinkers became the victims of Church‘s punishments when they proposed scientific theories which invalidated the principles (like the Earth is Flat, or, the whole universe revolves around the Earth), which the Church propagated to glorify God. Many of them were burnt after being classified as witches & as possessed by evil spirits.

Emergence of Trade, Towns and Cities

The change started to begin in 7^th century when Europe came in contact with Arabs & their luxury goods & the period from 11^th century onward saw rapid emergence of Towns, Trade and Crafts.

Gradually, peasants started to work as Artisans (i.e. Craftsmen) and the Merchants started to settle in these new towns. As the number of Artisans increased in the towns, the latter expanded to become cities. These cities developed, all across Europe, mainly along the land- based trade routes or around the sea ports.

To cope up with the demand due to increased trade and towns as well as specialization in crafts, a change in method of production of goods was felt necessary. The Merchants and craftsmen in towns started to organize themselves in Guilds, which were specific to the good being produced.

Rise in influence of Merchant Class

The revival in trade and emergence of Towns resulted in emergence of a new class called the Middle Class, comprising mainly of Merchants. The towns slowly freed themselves from Feudal control. They had their own government, militia and courts.

The people were not tied to the land, had freedom of occupation and could move around freely. The extent of social mobility that these towns offered attracted peasants from villages.

The Serfs were free in Towns and they provided the necessary workforce for the Merchants. The influx of more peasants provided a domestic market for the goods produced in towns. In towns, the economy was money based and land was not the main source of power. Gradually, the Merchants started influencing not just the social and economic, but also the political life in towns.

Transition to Capitalist Economy

A cash based economic system was introduced in towns & life revolved around money, rather than land. Land was used for production of cash crops, which acted as raw material for manufacture of non-agricultural goods and the peasants in towns received payment in cash.

The profits, in form of money, could be reinvested in trade & industry unlike the idle-wealth in form of gold and silver. Such wealth or money was called ‗capital‘. The towns became a center of production instead of the village.

King Merchant Nexus and the Peasant Revolts

A nexus between King & Merchants developed as both wanted power – political & economic. While Kings wanted to get rid of dependence on the Lords and desired less interference of the Church, the Merchants wanted to enjoy freedom of trade and social status, which the monetary profits brought through trade and commerce.

During the 14^th century there were many peasant revolts against the Feudal institutions as well as the Church. Thus, due to all these developments, the Feudal system began to decline, though it completely ended only by 18^th & 19^th century.

Modern Era: Renaissance and Reformation

From 14th to 17th century some important developments like Renaissance and Reformation took place, which resulted in an end to Feudal order.

Renaissance (Rebirth) – 14^th to 17^th Century

Renaissance began as a movement to revisit the old scriptures and learn about ancient Greece and Rome but soon turned into a movement of new ideas in art, religion, literature, philosophy, science and politics.

It resulted in decline of Church‘s influence in the intellectual & cultural life of Europe. While the Church talked about peace in life after death, the Renaissance thinkers attacked the Church and talked about happiness on this earth.

Humanism was at the core of Renaissance. It meant focus on Humanity, rather than Divinity. Renaissance came to imply a new thinking, which was humanistic and rational, rather than superstitious.

Renaissance resulted in ascendance of local European languages in literature, instead of Latin. Thus it helped in linguistic development and thus, in development of national consciousness. The invention of Printing Press in first half of 15th century led to further spread of education & new ideas.

Scientific Revolution was also a product of the transformation and began towards the end of the Renaissance era (i.e. around 17th century) and continued till late 18th century. The views of the Church regarding physical events were discarded. Only those phenomena were accepted which could be explained and verified through methods of scientific observation.

The Scientific revolution paved the way for a new movement called Enlightenment that began in 1600s and reached its height in mid 1700s. Enlightenment stressed on ideas of self- rule, basic human rights & democracy. Thus, we shall see that Enlightenment played a very important role in the American Revolution (1776), the French Revolution (1789) and the Russian Revolution (1905, 1917).

Reformation – Early 16^th Century

Protestant reformation was a movement against the practices & authority of the radical Catholic Church. Protestant leaders started setting up Protestant Churches in different countries of Europe. Under Martin Luther, a monk who opposed the Letters of Indulgence and other Church evils, the first Protestant Church was setup in Germany (from 1520-1545) under the King‘s support.

Nationalism also played a role as the people now despised the authority of Catholic Church located in Rome. In England, Queen Elizabeth I made the Church of England, the official church by declaring its independence from the Church in Rome and adopting some Reformation principles.

Protestant churches adopted the use of language spoken by the people, rather than the elitist Latin. The Bible was translated into local languages.

The use of local languages further increased national consciousness & thus Renaissance and Reformation can said to be a precursor to nationalism in Europe.

Reason was popularized as more important than Religion & by 17^th century, half of Europe had setup their own Protestant Churches.

Catholic Reformation or Counter Reformation (late 16th century)

A reform process was initiated by the Catholic Church in response to the rising popularity of the Protestant Churches. In Spain, the reformers formed an organization of clergymen to work as ―Soldiers of Jesus‖. Members of this organization came to be known as Jesuits and they went to France and Germany to win back followers. They also setup missions in India, China, Africa and America.

After these reformations, religious wars began among the followers of both sects and many followers were killed on both the sides. The violence against Protestants in England resulted in their migration to North America where their colonies later laid foundation of USA. In England, due to the pro-Catholic religious policies of King Charles I, religious violence merged into the English Civil War (1642-51) which was fought between the Parliamentarians and the pro-Monarchy Royalists over the form of government.

Beginning of International Trade & Colianism

Voyages of Discovery (at end of 15th century) also characterized the beginning of the Modern Age in Europe. This changed the economy of many European nations as with the discovery of these new lands, Colonialism began its march.

Rise of Absolute Monarchies

The King-Merchant nexus and the decline of Feudalism by the end of middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) helped the Kings in consolidating their hold on power. Strong rulers in form of Absolute Monarchies rose by subjugating the Feudal Lords and defying the Church‘s political interference

English Revolution and Seven Year Global War (1754-63)

The English Revolution

There were struggles for democracy against the rule of Absolute Monarchy in England. The English Civil War (1642-51) was fought between the Parliamentarians and the pro-Monarchy Royalists. The Parliamentarians were against the absolute rule of King Charles I who believed in the Divine Right of the King to rule. They opposed the levy of tax by the King without the consent of Parliament. The result was:

§ Execution of the King.

§ End to monopoly of Church of England (which was pro Catholics) over Christian worship in England.

§ Establishment of the principle that the King cannot rule without the consent of Parliament.

Glorious Revolution of 1688

Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England legally established the supremacy of Parliament. It was during this revolution that the Parliament, for the first time, appointed the King. The King was removed and his son-in-law, the William of Orange from Holland was made King. Thus, from a limited constitutional monarchy established by the English Civil War (1642– 1651), England transitioned to a Democracy with supremacy of Parliament.

Seven Year Global War (1754-63)

The Seven Year Global War was fought from 1754 to 1763, actually a period of nine years, between France and Britain. Other European powers like Spain, Prussia (Germany) & Austria also got engaged in the war. Known as the Global War since it was fought on different battlegrounds including North America, Caribbean, India, West Coast of Africa and in Europe

―The main reason behind the war was the quest for hegemony over colonies between Britain and France‖

In North America, the British had 13 colonies on the Eastern coast along the Atlantic Ocean. They wanted to expand westwards for want of more raw materials and an increased export market in North America. But the west was under the domination of France. The French were anxious to hold on to Western North America to prevent British hegemony in the world political and economic affairs.

Britain was undergoing the Industrial revolution (1750 onwards) at that time, which was making the British goods much more competitive in the world markets. Also, Britain was emerging as a dominant sea power and its maritime trade profits were soaring. Thus, France feared that a stronger Britain in North America would soon threaten the French colonies in the Caribbean.

They were right and in Caribbean the British fought against Spain and France who controlled the profiteering sugar plantations in their Caribbean colonies.

The West African Senegal had large natural resources, especially of Gum, and the French trading ports here, came under the British attack.

In 1760-61 the Battle of Wandiwash between the French and the British established the British supremacy in South India while the French were restricted to Pondicherry.

Result: Treaty of Paris of 1763

The Treaty of Paris of 1763 signed after the 7 Year War had the following clauses:

§ Britain got Canada from France and Florida from Spain.

§ France was allowed to retain its Caribbean sugar islands.

§ Spain‘s control over Cuba and Philippines was recognized.

The effect of the Seven Year War on world politics was that it reduced the domination of France, while Britain Consolidated its colonial power. Also, it laid the ground for American Revolution (1765-83) & French Revolution (1789).

American Revolution (1765-1783)

While British Mercantilism created an environment of resentment among the White Americans, the Seven Year War created conditions, which became the immediate trigger for the American Revolution.

Causes of American Revolution

§ Mercantile Capitalism

§ Proclamation of 1763

§ Role of Enlightenment Thinkers

§ Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure

§ Stamp Act in 1765 → No Representation in British Parliament

§ Boston Tea Party of 1773

§ Intolerable Acts of 1774 & Philadelphia Congress

§ American War of Independence (1775)

Mercantile Capitalism

§ Mercantile Capitalism was the British policy in the 18th century.

§ Government should regulate the economy at home and colonies abroad, so as to increase the national power and achieve a positive Balance of Trade.

This policy manifested in form of placing trade barriers on the colonies and establishing a monopoly of the British companies on trade done by the colonies. Such restrictions, which were part of the British colonial policy of Mercantile Capitalism, prevented the Americans from developing their indigenous industry.

The colonies were barred by British law from using the non-British ships for trade. The export of certain raw material goods from American colonies could only be made to Britain. Further, a very heavy duty was levied on import of non-British goods into America.

Further, the Americans were forbidden by law to setup industries like iron works & textiles. The exports of finished iron and textile goods were very profitable to the British businessmen and thus, the Americans were forced to fund the British growth in these sectors of economy.

Proclamation of 1763

As a truce with the American Indians, who had started an armed rebellion at the end of the Seven year War, the British Parliament issued a ―Proclamation of 1763‖ which banned the expansion by the US settlers to the west of Appalachian Mountains, as this area was now reserved for the native American Indians.

Another reason for issue of such a proclamation was the lobbying by the Aristocrats in Britain, who did not want the westward expansion. They had bought land in the American colonies and made profits from the rents they extracted from the white settlers.

The American settlers, who had fought in the Seven year War along the British with the purpose of westward expansion, felt cheated and thus ignored this proclamation. Their local militia forces continued to bring the area in the west under their control.

Role of Enlightenment Thinkers

The Enlightenment or ―Age of reason‖ was a movement that began in 1600s with ideas proposed by thinkers on the form of government and the rights of the people. It reached its height in mid 1700s.

Around 1750, many Thinkers were challenging the status-quo and demanding freedom & liberty for the people. They placed before the people idea of a democratic form of governance. They helped in development of ideas of Republicanism and Liberalism that militated against colonialism.

The Enlightenment thinkers in mid-1700s in France gave following ideas, which influenced both, the American Revolution and the French Revolution:

Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure

The Seven Year War had cost a lot of money to Britain. When they decided to make up for the costs of war by taxing the people in British colonies in North America, the latter opposed it.

No Representation in British Parliament

The British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed stamp taxes on all business transactions in the British colonies in USA. The Americans responded by boycotting the British goods and soon many uprisings in the towns followed where the tax collectors were exterminated.

Since the British Parliament had no American representation, the American leaders opposed the right of Britain to levy any taxes on them. Moreover, the Americans felt that the money thus collected was used in interest of the British and not for development of the peoples of America. In the Massachusetts Assembly, the leaders of all 13 colonies gathered and adopted the slogan of No Taxation without Representation. The threat by the American leaders to stop the import of British goods forced the British into repealing the Stamp Act.

Further, the Americans opposed the tax on consumer goods imported by the colonies by cutting British imports by half, which coerced the British into withdrawing all taxes except on Tea. The tax on Tea was not very high but it was not withdrawn by British because they wanted to retain their right to levy tax in US colonies.

Boston Tea Party of 1773 was a protest against this Tea tax. A ship carrying tea was anchored in the Boston port. Initially Americans did not allow the ship to unload & this resulted in a standoff for many days. Finally, when the pro-Britain Boston Governor ordered unloading, white settlers dressed as American Indians destroyed all the tea by offloading all the containers into the sea. The infuriated British responded by closing the Boston Port to all trade and by passing the Intolerable Acts of 1774.

Intolerable Acts of 1774 & the Philadelphia Congress

1st Continental Congress in Philadelphia (1774), which had representatives from 12 colonies (Georgia did not participate because it wanted British help in dealing with militancy of American Indians) was held in response to the Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts passed by the British Parliament earlier in 1774 to punish the colony of Massachusetts for the incident of Boston Tea Party by taking away its right of self-government.

Americans also appealed to King George III to remove restrictions on indigenous industry, allow Americans to trade with all the countries at reduced tariffs and not to tax the American colonies without their consent. Britain interpreted these demands as a Mutiny & attacked the colonies in 1775.

This led the American representatives to proclaim Declaration of Independence in 1776 (drafted by Thomas Jefferson), stating American colonies ought to be free and independent states.

American War of Independence (1775)

France, Spain and Dutch Republic helped the Americans secretly. In 1777, Britain tried to encircle the Americans by invading from Canada. Their failure in this Battle proved to be a turning point in favour of Americans.

After this victory of Americans, France entered the war openly in 1778. Spain and Dutch Republic also fought with Britain in Europe and Asia. Spanish Army expelled the British army from Florida (Florida was with British since Seven Year War‘s end. Later US bought Florida from Spain). In 1783, the British commander Cornwallis surrendered before the army led by George Washington.

Second Treaty of Paris 1783

§ Perpetual Peace between USA and Britain

§ All US Colonies were recognized as free, sovereign and independent states, with Britain giving up all claims on government, property and territory.

§ US would give back confiscated lands of Loyalists (who fought from British sides)

Spain signed a separate treaty with Britain got back Florida (lost to Britain after the 1st treaty of Paris, 1763)

Constructive Criticism of American Revolution

In 1789, United States Constitution came into effect. It was the first written Republic Constitution. The American Revolution established the first democratic Republic in the world & USA soon embarked on Industrial Revolution. It also expanded its territory within the continent of North America by westward expansion and purchase of territory like Louisiana from France in 1803 and Florida from Spain in 1819.

The Republic was not truly democratic as the women, the blacks and the Native Indian Americans did not get the Right to Vote. Slavery was a blot on the principle of equality and it could be finally abolished, only after the Civil War of 1861-65 between the Northern and the Southern States of USA.

The Southern States were against Slavery abolition as their economy was farm based and required the cheap black labour. They also profited from the Slave Trade and even desired that slavery be expanded to the newly acquired territory.

It can be argued that the Men referred to in US constitution were Men of Property, as only those who held property were given all of the promised rights. Still, the most important contribution of American Revolution was its contribution to ideas of Liberty, Equality, Fundamental Rights, Nationalism and anti-colonialism.

The idea of equality with no special privileges to Nobility was radical at a time when much of the world was under Feudalism, where the Nobles were the prominent class. The idea of no taxation on property, which flowed from the Right to Property, was also novel in those times.

Thus American Revolution was a revolution in ideas and system of Polity and it impacted the future events, the most prominent of them being the French Revolution of 1789.

French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars

Society of 18th century France was divided into three classes or estates. The Clergy was the first estate, the Nobles were the second estate and the third estate, which formed the majority of population, included the middle classes, the artisans, the city workers and the peasants (80% of the population).

Clergy was the largest landowner in per capita terms. Nobility had a monopoly on all the important official positions in the government service, the army, and other public offices. The Third Estate did not have voting rights. On the other hand, the Clergy and the Nobles did not pay any tax and the tax burden was solely borne by the Third Estate. This was a major source for the grievance of people.

Unpopular Monarchy & financial troubles

King Louis XVI was an inefficient ruler & under him France was in financial trouble due to costly wars like the Seven Year War. The American Revolution had pushed France to bankruptcy as France had aided the Americans against Britain.

While France supported the American Revolution (which aimed self-rule, liberty, equality & democracy for the People), the way the Monarchy ruled in France was an anti-thesis to the ideas that formed the foundation of the American Revolution.

Role of Enlightenment Thinkers

§ Enlightenment thinkers grounded their arguments on Rationalism, happiness of Man, Democracy, Liberty & Secularism.

§ The Doctrine of Nature brought the Clergy under attack by the thinkers. Voltaire believed that all religion was absurd as it was against the logics of reason.

§ Atheists and Materialists gained popularity as it was emphasized that man‘s destiny lay in his own hands.

§ The principles of Laissez Faire and No Taxation without Representation were stressed which brought the Nobility under criticism.

Some other major factors were → Renaissance of 14th century, Reformation of 16th century, the Scientific Revolution from 17th century onward that helped undermine the authority of the Church, the Enlightenment that started from 1600s and the American Revolution (1765-83)

Events in French Revolution of 1789

In 1789, King Louis XVI called a meeting of Estate‘s General to get consent for additional funds. Third estate representatives opposed additional funding since they were the ones who were the only taxpayers and would have to bear the tax burden from any such additional funding.

Although they had demanded and secured double representation for the Assembly, they were infuriated when they came to know that all the 3 estates were to have equal votes irrespective of the number of representatives.

When the debates reached a dead end, Third Estate representatives declared themselves the National Assembly, an assembly of the people rather than an assembly of the Estates.

Soon they moved their meeting to the nearby Royal Tennis Court. Their goal was to draw up a constitution for France in which the Third Estate could also have voting rights. The Second Estate saw this as an attempt to do away with the Old Order, and forced the King to crush the National Assembly.

When the King sent in troops to dispel the leaders of third estate, the people got enraged and they went on to break open the Bastille Prison. They freed the inmates and took control of the arms and ammunition stored in the prison. This was a symbolic revolt against the King and marked the de-facto end to his authority.

After Bastille event, the National Assembly started legislating and it adopted the now famous document of French Revolution, called the Rights of Man and Citizen. They abolished Feudalism, removed the Roman control on the French Church and curtailed the powers of the Church so as to reduce their influence in polity.

The French revolutionary wars were fought from 1792 to 1802, by France, against the absolute monarchies of Austria, Prussia and Savoy (Italian State) as the latter desired to protect their own hold on power from being eroded by ideas of liberty and equality.

They are known as Revolutionary wars because France was trying to protect the revolution of 1789, which was under threat from neighbouring monarchies which were afraid of the French revolution spreading to their countries. Hence they wanted to reinstate Monarchy in France.

The French forces tried to enlist the support of the people of the territory they gained control of, by offering them assistance and the ideas of fraternity, liberty and equality. In 1793, the King and the Queen of France were executed and then France declared a pre-emptive war against Britain, Holland, Spain and Hungary.

Jacobins & Napoleon

To qualify as voter, a person had to have income above a certain threshold. Due to this conditional Right to Vote, majority of the Third Estate could still not become voters. The Aristocracy was now replaced by the Bourgeois and the conditions of the peasants and city workers did not improve as they had expected. Soon after, in 1793, the radical Jacobins came to power in France. They made the Right to Vote unconditional by removing the income clause.

Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobins was the man behind, what came to be known as, the Reign of Terror, where the regime sought to execute via guillotine all those who opposed the revolution. King and the Queen were executed in 1793. Soon the guillotine was used to punish anyone voicing dissent. Under the Jacobins, France descended into anarchy with little scope for the Rule of Law.

Soon the Jacobins themselves turned against Robespierre and the Reign of Terror came to an end with his execution via guillotine. Bourgeois again came to power and their government was called Directorate. In 1795 they rewrote the constitution reinstating the conditional Right to Vote. In 1799, Napoleon, in a coup, brought France under military rule. He declared himself the Emperor a few years later and the Monarchy was restored in France.

The years between 1803 and 1815 are known for Napoleonic wars, wherein the French fought against rest of Europe and brought the ideas of French Revolution to the conquered territories. Napoleon‘s forces abolished serfdom and modernized the administration of the conquered territories in Europe.

After Napoleon‘s defeat at Waterloo (United Kingdom of Netherlands-present day Belgium), the monarchies in rest of the Europe helped the old dynasty to come to power in 1815. But the monarchy could never restore its control to the level witnessed prior to the 1789 revolution and soon France saw four waves of revolutions to finally become a Republic in 1871.

Impact / Constructive Criticism of French Revolution

The wars with France weakened the European colonial powers like Spain and Portugal and their colonies in South and Central America declared themselves as independent republics.

Simon Bolivar from 1813 to 1824 liberated many South American countries and later tried to organize them into a US type federation in form of Gran Columbia. He freed Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from the Spanish rule through an armed revolt.

The abolition of Slavery after French revolution was the first move against this repressive system and Britain followed suit in 1833 while USA banned it in 1865.

It led to destruction of feudalism in France as all laws of old feudal regime were repealed and lands of the nobles and church were confiscated and redistributed. The privileged classes i.e. first and second estate, were abolished. Anti-Feudalism wave that hit Europe in 19th century owes its origin to the events in France. French revolution ushered in the new economic system of Capitalism as against the prevalent Feudalism.

Jacobian constitution, which although never came into effect, was the first genuinely democratic constitution. It gave the right to vote to all, and even the Right to Insurrection, which implies the right to revolt or rise against the government. The Government under the Jacobin constitution had the responsibility to give work to all and ‗Happiness‘ of people was to be overarching state policy.

Under Napoleon‘s rule, Napoleonic Code as a civil code for France, was introduced and some of its provision like merit based recruitment to government jobs and focus on clearly written law, continue to effect the present legal system in France and other nations.

French Revolution inspired movements against colonialism in colonies around the world, while movements for democracy and self-rule rose in whole of Europe.

Negatives of French Revolution

French Revolution had limited success in achieving its objectives. In reality, post-revolution regime failed to resolve the grievances of the workers, who were the main force during the uprising of 1789; only the peasants benefited (as they became owners of land confiscated from the privileged classes).

The revolution failed to bring in democratic rule and the Reign of Terror under the Jacobians was a mass slaughter characterized by nothing but brute force and breach of rule of law.

Napoleon, due to his continuous warfare resulted in rise of nationalism in the invaded territories and he came to be perceived, not as a liberator, but a conqueror. This Nationalism was to prove advantageous to the unification of Germany and Italy in 1870s.

Nationalism – Rise and Impact

Until the French revolution, except for Britain, the Europe was under the domination of feudal system and there was no concept of a Nation. There were empires with scattered territories ruled by Monarchs, there existed feudal lords with their estates and there were towns and cities, but no Nation, as we understand it today.

French revolution gave the concept of a Nation, which was sum total of people & in whom lay the sovereignty. Thus, Nationalism came to be represented as self-rule due to the French and American revolutions.

Misuse by Absolute Monarchs

When Napoleon invaded the rest of Europe, nationalism manifested in form of the desire to protect the territory against foreign invasion. Thus Monarchs used nationalism to consolidate their hold on power & 19^th century Europe witnessed aggressive Absolute Monarchies with focus on extension of territory and expansion of colonial empire.

After Napoleonic wars, Europe saw waves of pro-democracy revolutions but Monarchies were opposed to the democratic ideas of French revolution and they used nationalism as a shield to defend and even extend their empires. War victories and admission of more colonies were used to maintain the hold on power.

Role of Revolutionary Thinkers

Modern thinkers contributed a lot to the concept of nationalism. Greece became independent from Ottoman Empire in 1832, while Belgium‘s pro-democracy revolution against United Kingdom of Netherlands helped it attain independence in 1839.

The movement for unification of Germany and Italy derived much of their energies from the ideas of these thinkers. These thinkers enthused the people to lend their support to their armies, freedom fighters and monarchies alike for sake of Nation‘s glory.

Industrial Revolution & Nationalism

The Industrial Revolution in Europe during the 19th century increased the national competition in economic sphere and brought the nation-states in conflict with each other for acquisition of colonies.

Unification of Germany

Major feature of 19th century Europe was struggle for national unification and independence. Greece (Ottoman) & Belgium (Netherlands) became independent in this century & Germany and Italy rose as united independent states.

§ In 18th century, Germany was divided into many states.

§ The Napoleonic wars ended the artificial boundaries of many states and united them, but still 38 states remained. Prussia was the biggest and the most powerful of them.

§ The social conditions were similar to those witnessed in any Feudal society. In Germany, the landlords were called Junkers, who dominated the affairs of the state.

After the French revolution, the German people started demanding democratic form of government and economic reforms. The wave of nationalism enthused the Germans for unification of these states. All these undercurrents resulted in formation of the German Confederation in 1815.

Confederation included parts of Austrian & Prussian Empire and some German states but large parts of Prussia and Austria were not included in the Confederation. Confederation‘s purpose was to coordinate economic policies of the constituent members. But it failed because of following:

§ Each of the constituent state tried to assert its independence and did little to meet the anti- feudal aspirations of the people.

§ The 1848 revolts for establishment of a democracy in a unified Germany.

§ Rivalry between Austria and Prussia for dominating the affairs of the German Confederation

1848 was a year of revolts in most of Europe for establishment of democracy. These revolts were led by workers. In 1848, revolts started in all German states for overthrow of the present

political system of Monarchy rule and the rulers were forced to grant a democratic form of government. The Constituent Assembly thus formed, met in Frankfurt with the goals to unite all the German States and to draft a new constitution.

The Prussian King refused to the proposal of a constitutional monarchy for united Germany. In the meantime, the rulers bounced back and started the repression of the nationalists. Consequently, the rights granted so far to appease the nationalists were withdrawn and the monarchy of Prussia emerged the strongest.

Unification under Bismarck: Policy of Blood & Iron

The unification of Germany was still to happen but not under a democratic government but under the iron hand of Bismarck, military commander of Prussia. His policy was to preserve the interests of aristocracy and the domination of Army in affairs of the State.

Bismarck followed the policy of Blood and Iron under which he coerced the states into unison. Aim of the policy was to unite Germany under the Prussian Monarchy and this required bringing down the German Confederation.

Bismarck‘s Prussia first fought a war in 1864 in alliance with Austria against Denmark to annex most of the territory of German Confederation. Then he allied with Italy in 1866 to defeat Austria & removed it from the German Confederation. Consequently the Confederation itself was ended.

In 1867, Bismarck formed the North German Confederation. It united 22 German states but excluded the Southern German states, which made the Prussian King the hereditary head of the state.

In 1870 French monarchy was tattering & conditions were ripe for another revolution for establishment of a democratic republic. The French King Louis Bonaparte declared war on Germany in 1870. He wanted to use a war victory to divert attention of the public and to use the consequent war gains to lend credibility to his regime. The result was that France was defeated and it declared itself republic in 1871.

The war and the consequent German victory allowed Bismarck to absorb rest of the German states into a united Germany. Hence, Franco-Prussian war of 1870 led to final unification of Germany.

Unification of Italy

Unification of Italy was a two-step process

§ In first step, it had to gain independence from Austria & secondly,

§ it had to unite consequent independent Italian states into a single unit.

“Mazzini & Garibaldi were revolutionaries who played an important role in this process”

Mazzini had formed an organization named Young Italy in 1831 for unification of Italy.From 1831 onwards, Young Italy repeatedly attempted revolts against the Monarchy but all of them failed to establish a democratic and united Italy.Yet, Young Italy enthused the people for a united Italy under a liberal government.

Role of 1848 Revolts – The 1848 revolts were led by intellectuals and liberals who were against the reactionary Austrian control and wanted a liberal government. These revolts did usher in democratic reforms, but neither did this result in independence from Austria nor the consolidation of the states into a united Italy.

Unification through Bismarck like Policy of Prime Minister Clavour

After the 1848 revolts, attempts at unification of Italy were made by the Prime Minister Clavour of the Italian State of Sardinia. In 1859, Sardinia allied with France in a war against Austria, which freed many states of Italy from Austrian rule and most of them were united under the Monarch of Sardinia except:

§ Venetia which still remained under Austrian rule

§ The Kingdom of two Sicilies (in Southern Italy), which was the collective name for Kingdom of Sicily and Kingdom of Naples;

§ Papal States, with their capital in Rome, which were under direct rule of the Pope who was supported by the French troops.

Sicily and Naples were liberated from the despotic rule of Ferdinand II by the revolutionary fighters led by Garibaldi and consequently brought under the Sardinia Monarchy in 1860 and the Kingdom of Italy was established. Venice was annexed by Italy in 1866 by taking advantage of Austro-Prussian War of 1866.

Weakened by the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French could not support the Pope anymore and in 1871, Rome was annexed and made the capital of Italy, thus completing the process of unification. After the unification, Italy and Germany started industrializing and Industrial Revolution started in these states as well.

Chapter-2

Indutrial Revolution, Colonialism and Imperialism

Industrial Revolution – 18th century Change in Mode of Production

§ The mode of production changed from Guild System to Putting-Out System to Factory System.

§ There was decline of the Guild System, when the volume of trade increased further and the Guilds were unable to cope with the demand as they were unsuited for mass production.

§ This resulted in coming of Putting-Out System, under which the raw material and the final product were owned by the merchant and the worker was only a wage earner. The site of work was the home or the backyard of the worker.

§ The invention of machines changed everything and even this system was replaced by Factory System, under which the centre of production shifted from home to the factory. The workers, for the first time now, travelled from home to work-sites on daily basis. They for the first time aggregated in such large numbers under a shed working on machines.

Industrial Revolution

§ It happened first in England in mid-18th century

§ It was the revolution in the economic processes of production of goods in the economy, aided by technological innovations, which gave a boost to the pace at which goods could be produced

Why Industrial Revolution first in England?

§ End of Feudalism & rise of capitalism

§ Renaissance & Reformation + democracy via Glorious Revolution 1688

§ Accumulation of money from trade with the rest of the world

§ Being an island, England had a natural barrier → Protection + Natural harbours

§ Rich in natural resources like coal and iron

§ Natural network of tributaries of navigable rivers → cheaper transport of goods and raw materials

Components of Industrial Revolution

§ Started with revolution in the Textile Industry

§ Development of powerloom running on hydropower + Development of cotton gin

§ Development of Steam Engine by James Watt in 1769

§ Deployed for running spinning machines and for powerlooms + used in coal mines to pump out water

§ Water transport using steam powered ships was much cheaper than transport through land

§ Development of Blast furnaces, which allowed for use of coke instead of charcoal

§ Allowed the British steel industry to produce high-grade cast iron instead of just the pig iron

§ McAdamized Roads + Development of rail-road network complemented by Canal Network building

§ Business transactions could be effected from remote locations with the arrival of Postal services & telegraph.

§ New farm machinery reduced the labor requirement in the Agriculture sector & led to the production of more cash crops

§ Enclosure Movement led to availability of lot of labor for the Industry in the towns

The Enclosure Movement was led by the big landlords, who in connivance with the legislators in Parliament, increased their farm landholdings by taking over the small landholdings of marginal peasants and the village commons. Thus a lot of labor was actually available for the Industry in the towns & the labor surplus ensured cheaper labor costs and thus more profits to the businessmen.

Impact of Industrial Revolution

§ Britain‘s economy came to be dominated by the Industrial sector, rather than the Agriculture sector

§ Boosted exports and conversely imports of raw material

§ Urban areas became the centers of production rather than center for trade and administration

But it also led to –

§ Crowding in cities, which led to problems of housing and sanitation

§ Aim was to maximize profits and thus the wages of workers were paltry

§ Child labor and participation of women in labor force increased, as they were available at cheaper wages

§ Little was done for the social security of the workers + working conditions in the factories

§ Led to development of resentment and many worker movements

§ Hastened the arrival of Socialism

In a way, Industrial Revolution increased the penetration of democracy in England. The growing resentment among the workers and their consequent movements made the government conscious that Laissez Faire is not the sine qua non & the State has a responsibility to protect the vulnerable sections, if Capitalism itself is to be protected from workers revolution.

It further resulted into –

§ Resulted in increased contact between Industrialized and non-industrialized world

§ Demand for raw materials and export markets made the Colonial powers to look for more territories to colonize

§ 19th century witnessed a race for colonies among European nations

Thus, Industrial Revolution played an important role in emergence of Imperialism whereby the Colonial powers tried to establish much stronger control over the colonies by use of military power, direct rule & rule by intermediaries.

Emergence of Industrial Revolution in West

In Europe, the end of Napoleonic wars in 1815 brought an atmosphere in which the nations could focus on Industrial development. Machines were introduced in many European nations after 1815, but the movements for democracy, independence and unification of territories didn‘t allow Industrial Revolution to take root till 1871.

§ Russian (Last European nation) industrial production got a boost when Serfdom was abolished in 1861

§ USA industry started developing after independence from Britain in 1783 → Boosted after 1870

§ Industrial Revolution took place in Japan in late 19th century

Colonialism and Imperialism

History of Colonialism

§ Voyages of Discovery at the end of 15th century, clubbed with the end of Feudalism

§ Rise in trade → Monetary profits → Need for RM → Development of explorations equipment compass, astrolabe, maps & better ships → marked the start of Colonization

§ Colonization of Asia, Africa and America began with three focuses – Gold, Glory and God

Policy of Mercantile capitalism involved attacking merchant vessels of other kingdoms, blocking trade routes, setting up colonies, placing trade barriers, monopolizing the trade with the colonies and if unable to colonize, then securing special trading rights with the new found lands so as to have a trade monopoly.

The objective of Colonialism in Asia was trade profit, while Slave Trade was the main reason in case of Africa. In Africa, colonization began early but was limited to the coastal region because the hindrances placed by the geography.

Slave trade was started by the Portugal as its workers on the plantations were not able to bear the hot and humid climate of Brazil. While the Africans worked on the plantations as slaves, the Native Americans worked like serfs on the estates of the colonists

Industrial Revolution, after 1750, increased the demand for raw materials. To increase supply of raw materials from the colonies the number of Africans traded in the Slave Trade also increased.

The Slave Trade came to be known as the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade and the Triangular Slave Trade as a tripod of America, Africa and Europe.

Why African slaves preferred

§ Native American could easily run away and hide in jungles.

§ They were familiar with the territories, knew how to survive on local plants and animals.

§ They lacked immunity to European diseases & died easily in plantation.

§ White prisoners could also escape and blend in as white town-folks in the colony.

Slavery was ended by France after the French Revolution in 1789. British passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833 to end slavery in all of its colonies, while the USA banned it after the civil war (1861-65).

Laissez-faire (19^th century)

§ Less domination of State in the economic sphere (as during Mercantile Capitalism) & thus a free market economy

§ It was a free market economy only in the domestic economy

Businessman should be free to look after his own interests. Only the unwritten law of supply & demand should determine the size of his profits. The same unwritten law would determine the fate of the worker, whether he had a job, what would be his working conditions and salary.

Difference between Colonialism and Imperialism

§ Colianialism begins in 16th centuary from North America & Latin America, whereas Imperialism started from 19th centuary from Africa, Asia & Pacific

§ Colonialism is part of Imperialism and Imperialism is a natural extension of Colonialism

§ Imperialism has the basic feature of political acquisition of a foreign territory via militarism or a threat only

§ Colonialism aims for extraction of economic benefits from the colony while Imperialism includes political control

Colonialism may be done by companies who secure special trading privileges & setup trading posts (making colonies dependent), while Imperialism is done by the state through government diplomacy to acquire territories, protectorates & spheres of influence to promote industrial trade and investments.

Neo-Imperialism

§ Events after the Industrial Revolution in colonial empire building are termed as New Imperialism.

§ The New in this New-Imperialism, which started after the Industrial Revolution in Europe, was the race component.

Political & economic domination or exploitation of non-industrialized nations by the industrialized nations → achieved by military conquer or by colonizing the foreign territory (Neo Imperialism → a result of Industrial Capitalism)

Another strategy during Neo-Imperialism was of capturing ports of call i.e. capture those places where ships could replenish supply of coal and water

Factors responsible for Neo imperialism

§ Industrial Revolution, which spread to the rest of Europe, USA and Japan in 19th century →Low wages to workers & more production led to ―underconsumption‖ in domestic market; hence capitalist nations had to find new markets and buyers to sell their products.

§ Rise of Nationalism which fueled the national rivalries for quest of economic and military supremacy

§ A sound economy + National glory + to divert attention of the public, which was getting exposed to ideas of democracy → rulers saw Imperialism as a tool to maintain political control at home

§ Decreased geographical space viz. earlier there was enough territorial space for the European powers to colonize but in the 19th century, except for the interior lands of Africa, nearly the whole world had come under influence of one powerful nation or the other

§ Factors like aspirations of Christian Missionaries to spread Christianity and the notion of White Man‘s burden to spread superior civilization in the backward colonies also played a role

Thus, now the major powers of the world could only grow at expense of one another. This made political control in the colonies much more imperative to ensure an economic control. To secure political control, military was required & thus a peculiar feature of the New Imperialism was the rise of State power. Trading companies like the East India Company were slowly replaced by their governments.

Italy

1870 onward

1870 onward

M

Germany

1870 onward

1870 onward

M

Russia

By 1850s

By 1914

M

USA

By 1890s

1865 onwards

M

Japan

By 1890s

1868 onwards

M

Neocolonialism

§ In the present day world, almost all countries are politically independent; however the imperialist control has not come to an end.

§ Neocolonialism is the practice of (mainly economic) exploitation and domination of independent but economically backward countries, by the powerful countries.

Colonialism in Africa (19^th century)

Difficult terrains, non-navigable rivers & other such geographical features ensured that colonialism had a late entry in mainland Africa and was restricted for a long time to Coastal Africa.

§ 19^th century – publications of the expeditions made by individual explorers raised the interest among Europeans

§ They were able to chart the courses of important rivers → Navigability in mainland → European companies and troops could now reach into the interiors and transport out the mineral wealth to the coasts for further export.

King Leopold II of Belgium patronized the explorers and was the first to establish a colony in central Africa. In 1876, he brought Congo under his control and managed it as his private colony. By 1914 whole Africa was scrambled among Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy & Portugal, except for Abyssinia (where the Italians were defeated by the nationalists – Battle of Adowa), and Liberia.

There were many squabbles among the European powers for territory and trading rights in Africa. The overlapping claims of European colonists led to Berlin Conference, in 1884-85, to resolve disputes regarding West & Central Africa, which resulted in demarcation of spheres of influence of each colonial power in Africa. Niger & Congo rivers was made free for ships of all signatory nations.

Egypt was of special interest to the British due to Suez Canal, which provided for a shorter sea-route to its Asian colonies, especially India. Suez Canal was managed by a company with shareholding of France and the Governor of Egypt. In 19th century, Egypt was under financial stress and it had to sell its shareholding to the British in 1875.

In 1876, Egypt failed to pay the installments of the loan it had taken from Britain and France. The two European powers setup a Council for management of budget of the Egyptian government and thus brought Egypt under economic control.

The high taxes and the delay in payment of salaries to the Egyptian Army led to a revolt in 1882. It was however, crushed by the British troops and Egypt was brought under British control. In 1904, France recognized British rights over Egypt and Sudan in exchange for recognition of its rights over Morocco. In 1922, Egypt was given independence but Britain continued to control the Suez Canal.

Impact of Colonialism on Africa

§ White settlers became elites and exploited the Black natives

§ Slavery

§ Mass killings by Colonial powers

§ Policy of Divide and Rule created problems after independence

§ Extreme neglect of Education and Health

§ Economic development hurt

The European settlers, like the Boers in South Africa, became wealthy and powerful in Africa. They controlled the government and denied Africans any political right. In almost every colony, the lands of Africans were taken away for cultivation and mining by settlers with Blacks working as slaves. The Race thesis was institutionally deployed to deprive Africans of their rights during Apartheid in South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Many Africans were killed by the European military while resisting the loss of their lands, slavery, & unfavorable treaties offered by the Europeans. Whole villages were destroyed if inhabitants refused to agree to the demands of the Colonists.

Belgium Congo probably witnessed the first Genocide of the modern era. From 1876 to 1908, nearly 10 million Africans were massacred in Belgian Congo by the administration of Belgian King Leopold II.

Scramble for Africa divided Africa into colonies with arbitrary boundaries, which did not follow the logic of geographical continuity or cultural unity. This resulted in colonies having multiple tribes, with very different cultures. They did not see themselves as part of one nation. Further, colonists used the policy of divide & rule.

They patronized one tribe at expense of the others. The favored tribesmen were provided with arms and money and were used to coerce the other tribes into submission. This resulted in mutual hostility among tribal groups.

After independence the country witnessed constant tribal violence. In 1994, this process culminated in the worst genocide in recent history as the Hutu tribesmen massacred millions of Tutsi tribe members. The lack of national unity still haunts many African nations and it has been very difficult to ensure functional democracy.

The gross enrollment ratio at levels of primary, secondary and higher education was very low at time the African nations became independent with extreme illiteracy & poverty. Also, there were no Africans at officer level posts in the Army. This resulted in inefficient governance after independence, and caused the consequent collapse of democratic regimes. The elected governments failed to deliver on the huge developmental goals & became dependent on the developed world for aid, which brought Neocolonialism to the African nations.

Health sector was also subjected to great neglect. Colonies suffered from epidemics regularly given the humid conditions due to an Equatorial climate. HIV-AIDS today is most prevalent in Africa & Africa is the biggest intervention area for WHO and NGOs.

Above factors prevented economic development, and indigenous entrepreneurship, in any significant form. Africans did not get the market price for mineral resources, which were exported out of Africa. Colonists ensured that no indigenous industry develops & Africa remains an exporter of raw material and importer of finished goods manufactured in European factories.

Colonialism in Pacific, Central Asia and China Colonialism in Pacific

In 1823, Monroe Doctrine was brought out by USA. It emphasized two things:

§ Policy of Isolation

§ Hegemony of US in North and South America

§ It said that US would not interfere in the European affairs or colonies and it would treat any interference in its backyard (all of America) as an act of aggression.

§ But by 1890s, USA emerged as a new Imperialist power. It started to bring areas outside America under its influence that is it extended the notion of its ‗backyard‘ to the Pacific and Far East (China).

§ Spanish-US war in 1898 (fought over Cuba, which along with Puerto Rico was the only Spanish Colony in the Americas):

§ Philippines came under USA attack and consequently annexed.

§ Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the US.

§ Cuba though made legally independent, its foreign policy came under US control. It was forbidden to make any treaties with any other country

§ Hawaii was officially annexed by USA in 1898.

§ In 1899 Samoan islands were divided between USA & Germany.

§ In the Fiji islands it was on the demand of locals, who resented the autocratic rule, that Britain took over in 1885.

Colonialism in Central and West Asia

In Central and West Asia, the main rivalry for colonies was between Russia and Britain. Russia wanted access to the sea for trade and thus desired to control the ports. Russian expansion in Asia began after the Crimean war (1853-56) in which Russia lost against an alliance of France, Britain, Ottoman Empire and Sardinia (Italy).

In 1858, Russia forced China to hand over huge territory north of the River Amur establishing much of the modern border between Russian Far East & Manchuria (China). This gave Russia a port in Western Pacific. To check Russian influence in Tibet, Britain sent troops there in 1904 & acquired control over Tibet‘s foreign policy.

Russia weakened after the defeat in 1904-05 Russo- Japanese war, made an agreement in 1907 with Britain and recognized Tibet & Afghanistan as areas of British influence. Thus, British were able to create a buffer zone between India & Russia.

In Persia (Iran), as per the 1907 agreement, Northern Iran was recognized as sphere of influence of Russia, Southern Iran of Britain and the Central Iran was made a buffer zone with equal freedom for both.

Most of the Far East was scrambled by 1871. Russia had one-third of the area under its control. In the East Asia, China and Japan were independent. Japan escaped Imperialism and embarked on Industrialization after 1868 Meiji Restoration. It became imperialist in 1890s and thus it was China, which became the target of Imperialism in 19th and 20th century.

Colonialism in China

By 1730 all European nations were trading with China, while USA started trading in 1784. China followed a policy of seclusion after Europeans started meddling in internal affairs, especially the Christian Missionaries from Rome. China allowed only limited trade through selected Chinese traders and only via port of Canton.

Two Opium Wars (1840-42 and 1858)

In 19th century Britain had become a major trade partner but it had a huge trade deficit as China was self-sufficient and imported little from the West. British were facing the burden of this trade deficit as the Chinese accepted only precious metals like Gold as payment for exports to Britain (especially Tea and Silk).

As a solution to this problem, the British started smuggling Opium in China & started paying from the profit accrued from smuggling. This was opposed by China and resulted in Opium Wars in 1840-42 and 1858. After the first Opium war –

§ British took over Hong Kong and extracted trade concessions from China.

§ Major ports of China were opened to British trade and residence.

§ Free trade was imposed on China →British could trade with any Chinese trader and custom duties were reduced.

§ A British diplomat was permanently stationed in China.

§ British citizens in China could only be prosecuted under the British law

Soon, England & France fought another war with China, on the pretext that a French missionary had been murdered. This resulted in Treaty of Tianjin -

§ Even more Chinese ports were opened for trade.

§ The European ships got rights of transit in Chinese rivers and Europeans could freely travel across China.

§ China was made to guarantee security of life of Missionaries and the latter were given right to establish Churches anywhere in China. Ironically along with all this religiosity import into China, the Opium trade was also legalized.

After the second Opium War, many more European nations, some South American nations and Japan established trade relations with China. Thus, China was opened up with different imperialist powers gradually establishing their Spheres of Influencesin China.

Loss of territory north of River Amur to Russia in 1858 → In 1858, China was weak. It was losing in the 2nd Opium War and was fighting the Taiping Rebellion. In 1858, Russia threatened to attack & thus forced China to hand over huge amount of territory north of the River Amur.

Sino-Japan War (1894-95)

This war was fought mainly over Korea, which was hitherto under the control of China. After the loss, China recognized Korea as an independent state (*Japan occupied Korea in 1910). China was forced to pay about $150 million to Japan for war damages.

§ Formasa (Taiwan) was occupied by Japan.

§ Senkaku islands in South China Sea, which are today a point of contention between China and Japan were annexed by Japan after this war.

§ Manchuria came under economic influence of Japan where it made lot of capital investments after 1890s as it was very important due to its high coal and mineral reserves

Sphere of Influence

Now, China had to pay war damages to Japan, but she did not have enough cash. So, France, Russia, Britain and Germany agreed to give loans to China. But in return, these Western countries divided China into ―sphere of influence‖ viz. each Western country had certain regions of China reserved exclusively for its purpose only (Exclusive rights to build railway, mines etc. in that region).This division of China into spheres of influence has been often described as the ―cutting of the Chinese melon”

United States Open door policy- According to this policy, all countries would have equal rights to make trade anywhere in China. Britain supported this policy, thinking that it would discourage the annexation of China by Japan or Russia.

Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900)

By 1900, China was divided into spheres of influences (thus China was reduced to a status of International colony). It was felt that it would soon be partitioned, with each Imperial power ruling its sphere of influence.

The rebellion was against foreign interference in political, economic and religious affairs & was crushed by a joint Anglo-German-Russian-French-Japanese-American force.

The Empress was forced to pay massive compensation for damage to the foreign property in China. Boxer Protocol, signed thereafter, allowed foreign powers to station their troops for protection of their citizens in China. After the treaty, Russia continued to occupy all of Manchuria.

Rise of Imperialism in Japan

§ Around 1850s, Japanese independence came under threat.

§ US sent a naval fleet in 1853 and coerced Japan into opening two ports for US ships and trade was permitted (Gun-boat diplomacy).

§ Similar treaties were signed with European powers in coming years.

Meiji Restoration (1868) Industrialization in Japan

§ A political revolution under which feudal-military government was replaced with a new imperial government under the Emperor Meiji.

§ From 1868 to 1908, Japan emerged as an industrialized nation.

§ Initially, the government took up the responsibility and invested a lot in heavy industries.

§ Later, the industries were sold to Capitalists who soon emerged as self-sufficient and no more required government support.

Nationalism enthused Education

§ An efficient Education programme ensured that Japanese were made literate very rapidly.

§ It provided skilled workforce needed for rapid industrialization.

§ Extreme nationalism and worship of Emperor were stressed in the education.

§ This enthused people to work hard for national economic growth and also helped in justification of Imperialism that was to happen later.

Absolutism in Japan

§ In 1889, a new constitution was enacted.

§ The ministers were responsible to the Emperor and not the Diet (Parliament).

§ Emperor was referred to as divine.

§ The ministers and the Diet had no say in appointment of Army and Navy officers.

§ The Diet had limited financial powers.

§ The right to vote was given to only 3% of population.

§ Thus, gradually the armed forces came to dominate the political affairs of Japan.

Imperialist Japan

Sino-Japan War (1894-95)

This war was fought mainly over Korea, which was hitherto under the control of China. After the loss, China recognized Korea as an independent state (*Japan occupied Korea in 1910). China was forced to pay about $150 million to Japan for war damages.

§ Formasa (Taiwan) was occupied by Japan.

§ Senkaku islands in South China Sea, which are today a point of contention between China and Japan were annexed by Japan after this war.

§ Manchuria came under economic influence of Japan where it made lot of capital investments after 1890s as it was very important due to its high coal and mineral reserves

Russo-Japan War (1904-05)

§ It was fought over Manchuria.

§ Japan won this war and took over Russian possessions in China.

§ Thus, more Chinese territory came under Japan‘s control.

§ It got privileged position in South Manchuria and also got Port Arthur.

§ Japan converted independent Korea into its Protectorate in 1905. Later in 1910 Japan annexed Korea

§ Russia ceded half of Sakhalin islands to Japan Impact of Russo-Japan War

§ The win established Japan as a major world power.

§ US was against Russian domination in China.

§ In Russo- Japan war, US President Roosevelt mediated and persuaded Russia to recognize Japan‘s territorial gains.

§ US entered into a secret agreement with Japan to allow US trade freely in these areas.

§ Thus, US began Policy of Appeasement towards Japan, which boosted Japan‘s imperialism and allowed it to become a major power and a US rival in the Pacific.

Japan invasion of Manchuria

Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and established the puppet state.From 1931 onward, small localized ―incidents‖ of Japanese aggression against China continued.

§ In Manchuria, Chinese companies were trying to replace the Japanese companies & Japanese trade and businesses were at risk.

§ This was unbearable in the background of the Economic Crisis of 1929.

§ Army invaded Manchuria in 1931 without the government‘s knowledge and the Prime Minister was killed in 1932 when he opposed the invasion.

§ Till 1945, it was the Army, which ran the country on Fascist lines. The Emperor enjoyed high prestige but he also failed to control the Japanese imperialism because he was afraid of his orders not being followed.

§ Thus in Japan, it was the Army and not the elected government, which was responsible for Imperialism in 1930s.

Sino-Japan war (1937-45)

§ Japan initiated full-fledged invasion of China

§ It became part of the World War II

Chapter- 3

Beginning of Socialism, First World War & its impact

Emergence of Socialism

§ Industrialization and capitalism brought benefits as well as hardship to man – unemployment, smoky, crowded cities, unhealthy living and working conditions, rivalry and conflict between nations.

§ As working men got the right to vote and elect their representatives in government, they forced the passage of laws that eliminated many of the early evils that industrialization had brought about.

§ Greatest challenge to laissez faire, & to capitalism itself, has come from the idea of socialism, which grew in beginning as a reaction against the evils of capitalism.

§ The idea appealed particularly to workers. Through their struggles, they were able to achieve much improvement in their living conditions.

§ Laissez faire doctrine was opposed by many people. Gradually, almost all the countries came to accept the idea that the state has a legitimate right and duty to regulate the economy.

§ Ideas of socialism also arose which while recognizing the importance of Machines & making them even better, aimed at solving the problems created by capitalism, by building a new social order.

§ The idea grew that, capitalism itself is evil and needs to be replaced by a different kind and economic system in which the means a production would be owned by the society as a whole and not by a few individuals.

Rise of Socialism

§ Many philosophers & reformers in the past had expressed their revulsion against inequalities in society and in favour of a system in which everyone would be equal. However these ideas had remained as mere dreams.

§ The French Revolution a 1789 with its promise of equality had given a new impetus to these ideas, but it did not did not usher in an era of equality in economic, social and political life.

§ The-wide gap between the aims of the French Revolution and the actual conditions in France after the revolution created serious discontent among the people.

§ It led to an attempt to overthrow the existing government in France with a view to building a society based on socialist ideas. This attempt, known as Babeufs Conspiracy, is an important event in the history of socialism.

Babeufs Conspiracy

§ Babeuf was born in 1760 and had participated in the French Revolution. He organized a secret society called the Society of the Equals.

§ Babeuf, in a manifesto, had declared, ―Nature gave everyone an equal right to enjoyment of all goods…..In a true society, there is no room for either rich or poor‖.

§ He said that it was necessary to make another revolution which would do away ―with the terrible contrasts between rich & poor, masters and servants!

§ The time has come to set up the republic of equals, whose welcoming doors will be open to all mankind.‖

§ The society planned an uprising but the government came to know of the plan and in May 1796, a large number of leaders including Babeuf were arrested & executed.

§ Though Babeuf‘s attempt at overthrowing the government had failed, his ideas exercised an important influence on the growth of socialist movement.

Utopian Socialists

§ Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Robert Owen – Late 18^th century to mid-19^th century

§ They viewed property in relation to its usefulness to society.

§ They recognized the evils of capitalism and proposed the establishment of a new and better system of society in its place.

§ Saint-Simon coined the slogan, ‗from each according to his capacity, to each according to his work‗.

§ They visualized a society free from exploitation of any kind and one in which all would contribute their best and would share the fruits of their labour.

§ However, methods they advocated for the establishment of such a society were impracticable & ineffective. Hence they came to be called utopian socialists.

Blanqui

§ Louis Blanqui was a prominent revolutionary who helped in spreading ideas of socialism & played a leading role in every uprising in Paris from 1830 to 1871.

§ He believed that through a revolutionary conspiracy, power could be captured to bring about socialism.

Communist League

§ It had members in many countries of Europe. Its slogan was ‗All men are brothers‘. Thus internationalism was one of its important features.

§ In 1847, its name was changed to the Communist League and it declared as its aim, ‗the downfall of the bourgeoisie, the rule of the proletariat, the overthrow of the old society of middle class, based on class distinction, and the establishment of a new society without classes & without private property. ‘

§ Its journal carried the slogan, ―Proletarians of all lands, unite! ‖

§ It instructed Karl Marx and Frederick Engels to draft a manifesto.

Marxian Socialism

Karl Marx & Frederick Engels

§ The Communist Manifesto first appeared in German in February 1848.

§ The influence of this document in the history of the socialist movement is without a rival.

§ It was the work of Karl Marx and his lifelong associate Frederick Engels.

§ Both Marx and Engels were born in Germany, but spent much of their life outside Germany, mostly in England.

§ Through their work in the socialist movement and through their numerous writings, they gave a new direction to socialist ideology and movement.

§ Their philosophy is known as Marxism and it has influenced almost every field of knowledge.

Communist Manifesto

§ Communist Manifesto stated that the aim of workers all over the world was to overthrow the capitalism & establishment of socialism.

§ ―In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class differences‖, it said

―appears an association in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all‖.

§ It pointed out that socialism was not merely desirable, but also inevitable.

§ Capitalism, it said, does not serve the needs of man and, like other social and economic systems in history, it would be replaced by a system, better suited to human needs.

Philosophy of Marxism

Marx analysed the working of capitalism in his famous work Das Kapital (Capital) & pointed out the characteristics that would lead to its destruction.

§ According to him, workers produce more ‗value‘ than they get in the form of wages, the difference being appropriated by the capitalists in form of profits.

§ This constitutes the basis of conflict in capitalist society. Profits can be increased at the cost of workers‘ wages &, therefore, interests of workers and capitalists are irreconcilable.

§ Economic crises were inevitable under capitalism because of the discrepancy between the purchasing power of workers & total production.

§ These crises would be resolved only if the private ownership of the means of production is abolished and the profit motive eliminated from the system of production.

§ With this, production would be carried on for social good rather than for profits for a few.

§ The exploiting classes would disappear & a classless society would emerge in which there would be no difference between what was good for the individual and for society as a whole.

§ Marx and Engels believed that this would be accomplished by the working class which was the most revolutionary class in capitalist society.

§ They advocated that the emancipation of the working class would emancipate the whole human race from all traces of social injustice.

§ Around the time the Communist Manifesto was published, revolutions broke out in almost every country in Europe viz. 1848.

§ These revolts aimed at the overthrow of autocratic governments, establishment of democracy and also, in countries such as Italy and Germany, at national unification.

§ Major forces in these revolutions were the workers who had been inspired by ideas of socialism. The Communist League participated in these revolutions in many countries. However, all these revolutions were suppressed.

First International & Paris Commune The First International, 1864

§ With the formation of International Working Men‘s Association, or First International, as it is called, it has been said, ―Socialism stepped on the stage of history as a world movement‖.

§ The meeting at which it was formed took place in London and was attended by delegates from Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Poland and Switzerland.

§ Marx drafted ‗An Address to the Working Classes‘ which along with the General Rules outlined the principles & aims of the International.

§ The emancipation of working classes, it was declared, must be won by the working classes themselves.

§ The central aim of the International was declared to be the total ‗abolition of all class rule.

§ The universal character of the struggle of the working class was emphasized. The Address ended with slogan, as in Communist Manifesto, ―Proletarians of all lands, unite!‖

Impact of First International

§ From the time of its formation, the International was considered by governments of that time as a menace & attempts were made to exterminate it.

§ It was persecuted & declared illegal in many countries.

§ During the short period of its existence, the International exercised a tremendous influence on workers‘ movements in Europe & North America.

§ It played a particularly important role in creating bonds of international solidarity by arranging aid from workers of many countries in support of the workers‘ struggle in any particular country.

§ Though its membership was not very large, it was feared by the rulers for the sense of workers‘ solidarity that it had succeeded in creating.

§ One of its finest examples was evidenced at the time of the war between Prussia and France in 1870.

§ The war was condemned both by the German and French workers as a crime committed by the French and Prussian dynasties.

§ The French and German branches of the International sent messages of good wishes and solidarity to each other.

The Social Democratic Party in Germany in a message to the French workers, said, ―….…we shall never forget that the workers of all nations are our friends and the despots of all nations are our enemies.‖ After the defeat of the French army, the German government announced its intention to annex Alsace-Lorraine from France. The German workers protested against this and there were many demonstrations in various cities of Germany. All the leaders of German workers were arrested on charges of treason.

The Paris Commune, 1871

§ The war between France and Prussia led to another important development—an uprising by the workers of Paris and the seizure of-power by-them.

§ Within a few weeks of the war between France and Prussia, the French army had been defeated & French emperor Louis Bonaparte had been taken prisoner.

§ A new government had come into being and had declared France a republic.

§ This government was dominated by the propertied classes & had agreed to Bismarck‘s terms for truce including the surrender of Paris, cession of Alsace-Lorraine & payment of a huge war indemnity.

§ The workers of Paris regarded the surrender by the government as treacherous. They refused to surrender.

§ The government withdrew from Paris and asked for German help to crush Paris.

§ Workers of Paris elected a council which assumed the title of the Paris Commune.

§ It was elected by universal adult franchise & represented the workers and the lower middle classes of Paris.

§ All public offices were elected by universal suffrage with people having the right to recall.

§ The Paris Commune was the result of an upsurge in which the workers had played the dominant role, the result of the first workers‘ revolution in history.

§ It was soon drowned in blood.

§ The French government which had established its headquarters in Versailles attacked Paris with a huge army.

§ In this they received the help of Germany also.

§ The battle led to termination of Commune.

§ The French government called it the victory of order, justice and civilization.

The demise of 1^st international

§ The extermination of Commune was followed by systematic attempts to destroy the International in almost every country of Europe.

§ The International had organise support for the Commune & after its destruction was engaged in aiding refugees from Paris.

§ It appeared to gain strength in many countries of Europe inspite of the fact that the revolution in Paris had been suppressed.

However, soon it collapsed as a result of internal differences as International was not a homogeneous organization and represented many different trends in the workers‘ movement. Due to differences on aims and methods, it was split in 1872 and was formally dissolved in 1876. In the meantime, however, the socialist parties in many countries of Europe had begun to grow and after a few years they were to unite and form another International.

The Second International & Cry against War

The Second International

§ When the First International was formed, there did not exist well-organised socialist parties: there were only a few groups.

§ However, after 1870 in almost every country in Europe socialist parties were formed.

§ They participated in national elections & in some countries came to have fairly large representation in the parliament.

§ Similarly strength & membership of the trade unions also increased and there were many strikes.

§ Thus though the First International had been dissolved, the movement had become a mass movement.

§ To unite the socialist parties in various countries into an international organisation, a Congress was held in Paris in 1889, the centenary of French Revolution of 1789 which resulted in the formation of the Second International.

§ The period after the formation of the Second International saw a steady increase in the strength of the socialist parties and of trade unions.

§ The socialist and workers‘ movement had become a major force in almost every country of Europe.

Second international: achievements

§ The most significant achievements of the Second International were its campaign against militarism & war

§ It emphasized on asserting the principle of the basic equality of all peoples and their right to freedom and national independence.

§ The period from the last decade of the 19th century saw the growing militarization of every country in Europe.

It was a period when war seemed imminent and every country was spending increasingly huge sums in preparing for it. Europe was getting divided into groups of warring blocs, with the struggle for colonies being the main cause of conflicts between them. The struggle against

militarism & prevention of war became the major aims of the Second International and of the socialist parties affiliated to it.

§ They expressed the conviction that capitalism was the root cause of war & resolved that wars could be ended only with the destruction of capitalism.

§ They decided that the socialists should utilize the ―economic and political crisis created by the war, to rouse the masses and thereby to hasten the downfall of capitalist rule‖.

§ The socialist movement had made the international solidarity of workers as a fundamental principle.

§ When Russia and Japan were warring on each other, the leader of the Japanese socialist group & leader of the Russian socialists were made the joint presidents of Second International at its Congress in 1904.

§ The socialists in many countries had resolved to call for a general strike to prevent their countries from participating in wars.

§ They suffered at the hands of their governments who were preparing for war.

2nd International: cry against colonialism

§ The Second International also condemned colonialism & committed the socialist parties to oppose robbery &subjugation of colonial peoples.

§ The 1904 Congress was attended by Dadabhai Naoroji, who pleaded the cause of India‘s freedom. He was supported by the British delegates at the Congress.

§ The President asked Congress ―to treat with the greatest reverence the statement of the Indian delegate, an old man of eighty, who had sacrificed fifty-five years of his life to the struggle for the freedom and happiness of his people‖.

2nd International: Limitations

In spite of its many achievements & its growing strength, the Second International suffered from many weaknesses.

§ While the socialist parties in many countries had become mass parties, basic differences had arisen among them.

§ While some sections believed in the necessity of a revolution to overthrow capitalism, others began to believe that socialism could be achieved through gradual reforms.

§ The latter were willing to support the existing governments in certain circumstances. Some sections in the socialist parties even favoured colonialism.

§ On the question of war, while the attitude of the Second International was clear, many socialist parties had serious differences. Some of them thought that if they organised opposition to the war, they would be crushed.

§ They were also not willing, as the Second International had recommended, to utilize the war, once it had broken out, to promote revolution. It was on the question of the war that the Second International suffered a fatal blow.

§ When the First World War broke out, most of the socialist parties extended their support to their respective governments.

§ This had serious consequences for the socialist movement.

§ The Second International ceased to function and the socialist movement in every country was split.

§ With the outbreak of the First World War, an important phase in the history of the socialist movement came to a close.

Causes of First World War

In 1914, a war began in Europe which soon engulfed almost the entire world. The damage caused by this war had no precedent in history.

§ It was a total war in which all the resources of the warring states were mobilized.

§ It affected the economy of the entire world

§ The battles of the war were fought in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific.

§ Casualties suffered by the civilian population from bombing & the famines and epidemics, caused by the war far exceeded those suffered by the armies.

§ Because of the unprecedented extent of its spread and its total nature, it is known as the First World War.

Reasons for First World War

Imperialistic aspirations & Rivalries

The underlying causes of the war were the rivalries & conflicts among the imperialist countries. The imperialist conquest of Asia and Africa was accompanied with conflicts between the imperialist countries.

§ Sometimes the imperialists were able to come to ‗peaceful settlements‘ and agree to divide a part of Asia or Africa among themselves without resorting to the use of force against each other.

§ At other times their rivalries created situations of war.

§ Wars were generally avoided at that time because the possibilities of further conquest were still there.

§ If an imperialist country was excluded from a certain area, it could find some other area to conquer.

§ Sometimes wars did break out between imperialist countries as happened, for instance, between Japan and Russia.

By the end of the nineteenth century, however, situation had changed. Most of Asia and Africa had already been divided up and further conquests could take place only by dispossessing some imperialist country of its colonies. So in the period beginning from the last decade of the nineteenth century, imperialist rivalries resulted in attempts to re-divide the world, creating conditions of war.

Rise of Germany

§ After the unification of Germany had been achieved, it made tremendous economic progress.

§ By 1914, it had left Britain and France far behind in the production of iron & steel.

§ It had entered the shipping trade in a big way. One of its ships, the Imperator, built in 1912, was the largest in the world.

§ Both Britain and France were alarmed at the expansion of German manufactures as they considered it a serious threat to their position.

§ Germany could not grab many colonies, having arrived late on the scene.

§ Most of Asia and Africa had already been occupied by the older imperialist powers.

§ The German imperialists, therefore, dreamed of expanding in the east.

§ Their ambition was to control the economy of the declining Ottoman Empire.

§ For this purpose, they planned the construction of a railway from Berlin to Baghdad.

§ This plan created a fear in Britain, France and Russia as the completion of the Berlin- Baghdad railway would endanger their imperialist ambitions in the Ottoman Empire.

§ Like Germany, all the major powers in Europe, and Japan also had their imperialist ambitions.

§ Britain was involved in a conflict with all other imperialist countries because she had already acquired a vast empire which was to be defended. The rise of any other country was considered a danger to the British empire.

Conflicts within Europe

§ There were six major powers in Europe at this time—Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France and Italy.

§ One of the questions with which almost all these countries got involved, concerned the countries comprising Balkan Peninsula in Europe.

§ The Balkan countries had been under the rule of Ottoman Turks.

§ However, in 19^th century, the Ottoman rule had begun to collapse.

§ There were revolts by various nationalities for independence.

§ The Russian Czars hoped that these areas would come under their control once the Ottomans were ousted from there.

§ They encouraged a movement called the Pan-Slav movement which was based on the theory that all the Slavs of Eastern Europe were one people.

§ Many areas in Austria-Hungary were inhabited by the Slavs

§ Russia, therefore, encouraged movements both against the Ottoman Empire and Austria- Hungary.

§ The major Balkan country, Serbia, led the movement for uniting the areas inhabited by the Slavs in the Ottoman empire as well as in Austria-Hungary.

§ Other major European powers were alarmed at the growth of Russian influence in the Balkans; they wanted to check the Russian influence, while Austria Hungary had plans of expansion in this area.

§ Corresponding to the Pan-Slav movement, there was a Pan German movement which aimed at the expansion of Germany all over central Europe and in the Balkans.

§ France hoped to recover not only Alsace Lorraine which she had lost to Germany in 1871 but also to wreak vengeance on Germany for the humiliating defeat that she had suffered in the war with Germany in 1870-71.

Serbian Nationalism

§ The Serbs wanted to integrate the Balkan areas populated with Slavs into a single Yugoslavia.

§ Such a Yugoslavia would have required secession of certain areas from the German empire which had people from different ethnic groups including Slavs.

§ Once the Slavs had been integrated into Yugoslavia, other groups would have also demanded secession. Thus, the idea of Yugoslavia threatened the integrity of German empire.

Europe had divided itself into two alliances

§ The Triple Alliance had Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy while the Triple Entente had Britain, France and Russia.

§ But these were not very rigid alliances. In fact, Italy fought on the side of Britain and France in the World War I.

§ The World War I was fought between the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria) and the Allied Powers (Italy, Britain, France, Russia and US).

Incidents Preceding the War

1904 France & Germany Rivalry

§ In 1904 Britain & France had entered into a secret agreement according to which Britain was to have a free hand in Egypt, and France was to take over Morocco.

§ The agreement became known to Germany and aroused her indignation.

§ German emperor went to Morocco and promised the Sultan of Morocco his full support for the independence of Morocco.

§ The antagonism over Morocco, it appeared, would lead to a war. However, the war was averted when in 1911 France occupied most of Morocco and, in exchange, gave Germany a part of French Congo.

§ Even though the war had been averted, the situation in Europe, with each country preparing for war, had become dangerous.

Britain-Russia Agreement of 1907

§ It ended their disputes in Asia.

§ Afghanistan and Tibet were recognized as British spheres of influence

§ Iran was divided into three zones with the North recognized as Russian zone, the central area as a buffer and the South as British zone.

Bosnia Crisis (1908)

§ Austria annexed the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia which had significant population of Slavs

§ Serbia also longed for Bosnia as an integral part of future Yugoslavia, thus increasing the enmity between the two.

§ Russia threatened to start a war against Austrian annexation but Germany‘s open support to Austria compelled Russia to retreat.

§ The incident, however, not only embittered feelings in Serbia but also created further enmity between Russia & Germany. The situation in Europe became even tenser.

Balkan wars

§ The crisis resulting from the annexation of Bosnia by Austria was followed by Balkan wars in 1912, four Balkan countries — Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece — started a war against the Turks.

§ As a result of this war, Turkey lost almost all her possessions in Europe.

§ However, the Balkan countries fought another war over the question of distributing former Turkish territory among themselves.

§ Finally, Austria succeeded in making Albania, which had been claimed by Serbia, as an independent state.

§ The frustration of Serbia‘s ambitions further embittered her feelings against Austria.

§ These incidents brought Europe on the verge of war.

First World War – Outbreak, Course & End Outbreak of First World War

The war was precipitated by an incident which would not have created much stir if Europe had not stood divided into two hostile armed camps, preparing for war for many years.

§ On 28 June 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated at Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia.

§ Austria saw the hand of Serbia behind assassination and served her with an ultimatum.

§ Serbia refused to accept one of the demands of the ultimatum which went against the independence of Serbia.

§ On 28 July 1914 Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia had promised full support to Serbia and started full scale preparations for war.

§ On 1 August, Germany declared war on Russia and on 3 August on France.

§ German troops marched into Belgium to press on to France on 4 August and on the same day Britain declared war on Germany.

Many other countries soon entered the war

§ Japan declared war on Germany with a view to capturing German colonies in the Far East.

§ Turkey and Bulgaria joined on the side of Germany.

§ Italy, in spite of her membership of the Triple Alliance, remained neutral for some time, and joined the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1915.

Course of World War 1

§ Germany had hoped that through a lightning strike through Belgium, she would be able to defeat France within 6 weeks and then turn against Russia (Schlieffen Plan).

§ The plan seemed to succeed for a while and the German troops were within 20 km of Paris.

§ Russia had opened attacks on Germany and Austria and some German troops had to be diverted to the eastern front.

§ Soon the German advance on France was halted & war in Europe entered a long period of stalemate.

§ In the meantime the war had spread to many other parts of the world and battles were fought in West Asia, Africa and the Far East.

Trench Warfare

§ After the German advance had been halted, a new type of warfare developed.

§ The warring armies dug trenches from which they conducted raids on each other.

§ The kind of warfare that the armies were used to earlier — fighting in the open almost disappeared.

§ On the Western Front, which included eastern France and Belgium, the troops of the warring sides dug trenches and continued their raids on each other‘s positions.

§ For about four years, neither side could dislodge the other. The European countries made use of the troops recruited from their colonies in the war.

§ Labour from colonies was also used to dig trenches in Europe.

On the Eastern Front, Germany and Austria succeeded in repulsing the Russian attack and capturing parts of the Russian empire. They were also successful against Rumania, Serbia and Italy.

Outside Europe, Japan occupied German possessions in East Asia, and Britain and France seized most of the German colonies in Africa.

New Weapons used in First World War

§ A large number of new weapons were introduced.

§ The machine gun and liquid fire were two such weapons.

§ For the first time, aircrafts were used in warfare and for bombing the civilian population.

§ British introduced the use of the tank which was to become a major weapon later.

§ Both the warring groups tried to block each other‘s supplies of food, manufactures and arms and the sea warfare played an important part in this.

§ Submarines called Uboats were used by Germany on a large scale not only to destroy enemy ships but also ships of neutral countries heading for British ports.

§ Another horrible weapon used in the war was poison gas.

Withdrawal of Russia from First World War

§ In a major development in 1917 Russia withdrew from the war after October Revolution.

§ The Russian revolutionaries had opposed the war from the beginning and under the leadership of Lenin decided to transform it into a revolutionary war to overthrow the Russian autocracy and to seize power.

§ The Russian empire had suffered serious reverses in the war.

§ The day after the Bolshevik government came to power, it issued the Decree on Peace with proposals to end the war without any annexations and indemnities.

§ Russia decided to withdraw from the war and signed a peace treaty with Germany in March 1918.

§ The Entente powers which were opposed to the revolution in Russia and to the Russian withdrawal from the war started their armed intervention in Russia in support of the elements which were opposed to the revolution.

§ This led to a civil war which lasted for three years and ended with the defeat of foreign intervention and of those Russians who had taken up arms against the revolutionary government.

Entry of USA in World War 1

§ On 6 April 1917, the United States of America declared war on Germany.

§ USA had become the main source of arms and other essential supplies for the Entente countries.

§ In 1915, the German UBoats had sunk a British ship in which among the 1153 passengers killed were 128 Americans.

§ The Americans were generally sympathetic to Britain, and this incident further roused anti German feelings in USA.

§ Economic considerations had turned them even more in favour of the Entente countries.

§ These countries had raised vast amounts of loans in USA to pay for the arms and other goods bought by them.

§ Many Americans had subscribed to these loans which could be paid back only, if these countries won the war.

§ There was also a fear that if Germany won the war, she would become a serious rival to USA.

§ The sinking of ships, including American ships carrying American citizens, by the German Uboats finally led USA to join the war.

End of First World War

§ Many efforts were made to bring the war to an end.

§ In early 1917, a few socialist parties proposed the convening of an international socialist conference to draft proposals for ending the war without annexations and recognition of the right of peoples to self-determination. However, the conference could not be held.

§ The proposal of the Bolshevik government in Russia to conclude a peace ―without annexations and indemnities, on the basis of the self-determination of peoples‖ was welcomed by many people in the countries which were at war. However, these proposals were rejected.

§ The Pope also made proposals for peace but these too were not taken seriously.

§ Though these efforts to end the war did not get any positive response from the governments of the warring countries, antiwar feelings grew among the people.

§ There was widespread unrest and disturbances and even mutinies began to break out.

§ In some countries, following the success of the Russian Revolution, the unrest was soon to take the form of uprisings to overthrow the governments.

§ In January 1918, , President of the United States, proposed a peace programme. This has become famous as President Wilson‘s Fourteen Points. Some of these points were accepted when the peace treaties were signed at the end of the war.

Surrender of Germany, Austria-Hungary

§ Britain, France and USA launched a military offensive in July 1918 & Germany and her allies began to collapse. Bulgaria withdrew from the war in September, and Turkey surrendered in October.

§ Political discontent had been rising in Austria-Hungary and Germany. The emperor of Austria-Hungary surrendered on 3 November.

§ In Germany revolution broke out. Germany became a republic and the German emperor Kaiser William II fled to Holland. The new German government signed an armistice on 11 November 1918 and the war was over.

Treaty of Versailles & Outcome of WW1

Different views on Peace Treaties

§ The British wanted a lenient treaty with Germany because a prosperous Germany would serve as a market for British exports.

§ France desired a harsh treaty with Germany so as to ensure that it is not able to threaten French frontiers in the foreseeable future.

§ US also wanted a lenient treaty with Germany but was disappointed with the harsh treaty that Germans signed with the Russians & the destruction of civilian infrastructure by the Germans during their retreat from France and Belgium.

Finally a compromise was reached and Germans were not to pay the whole cost of war but just the cost in lieu of damage done to civilians and their property.

Treaty of Versailles

Victorious power met at Versailles. The number of countries represented was 27. The terms of treaty was decided by Britain, France and USA. Germany and Russia were excluded. The treaty was not a negotiation but imposition of demands on defeated by the victors. It was one of the most controversial settlements ever signed & was criticised even in the Allied countries.

Germany

§ The War Guilt clause declared Germany and her allies guilty of aggression.

§ Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.

§ Coal mines in German area called Saar were ceded to France for 15 years and area to be governed by League of Nations.

§ Germany ceded her pre war territories to Denmark, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia.

§ Rhine valley was to be demilitarized.

§ Union between Germany and Austria was forbidden.

§ Germany was to be disarmed. The strength of the army was capped at 1,00,00.

§ She was required to have no air force and submarines.

§ Germany was releived of all her colonies. Togo and Cameroon were shared between Britain and France. South West Africa was given to Britain. Pacific and Western Hemisphere were given to Japan

§ Although China was present during the negotiations her areas under German were given to Japan and not restored to her.

§ Germany was required to pay for war damages. An enormous figure of $6600 million Pounds was levied.

§ A League of Nation was set up and its aims and organisations were set out in the League covenant.

Austria & Hungary

§ Austria & Hungary were reduced to a very small size as compared to the expanse of German Empire.

§ Territory was distributed among other European nations on the principle of self- determination which entailed that now people lived under the government of their own nationality

Ottoman Empire

§ Complete dismemberment of Ottoman Empire took place.

§ Ottoman Empire‘s colonies were converted to mandates and given to Britain and France.

§ Syria became French Mandate while British Mandates included Trans-Jordan, Iraq and Palestine.

§ Britain and France were to look after the interests of the people of the mandates but in reality they were governed as colonies.

§ Most of the Turkish territory was given to Greece and Italy and Turkey was reduced to a small state.

Reasons for loss of Germany

§ Germany had to face war on two fronts.

§ Allied sea power was decisive.

§ German submarine campaign failed in the face of convoys protected by British.

§ Entry of USA brought new resources.

§ Allied political leaders Lloyd George and Clemenceau were more competent.

§ Germany was badly let down by here allies and had to constantly help out the Austrians and Bulgarians.

Outcome of WW1

1. Unprecedented loss of lives – over 9 million people was killed.

2. War led to epidemics and famines and various other social problems. Economy of many nations collapsed.

3. It transformed the political map of the world. Ruling dynasties were destroyed.

4. Romanov in Russia, Hohenzollern in Germany and Habsburg in Austria-Hungary and the rule of Ottoman Empire came to an end.

1. It gave birth of many independent nations and national movement. Strengthening of freedom movement in Africa and Asia. Exploitation of colonies during war, false hope of ushering in democracy.

2. It marked an end of European supremacy. It was surpassed by US. Soviet Union was soon to become world power.

3. The role played by soldiers from Asia and Africa belied the claims that Europeans soldiers were superior.

It was supposed to be the “war to end all wars”. But it never happened. But imposition of harsh treaties caused further conflict. Imperialism was not destroyed as a result of the war. The victorious powers enlarged their possessions. Fear of redivision of the world remained lurking.

Impact of the World War I

The Peace Treaties (Treaty of Versailles)

They weakened Germany only temporarily because some of clauses like Disarmament and huge War Reparations were impossible to implement. Germany soon began rearming itself with help of Russians and defaulted on the payments towards reparations.

§ The treaties only served to sow seeds of resentment and extreme national rivalries which were to harvest in form of the World War II.

§ Treaties divided Europe into two groups of states. While one group wanted to revise the peace settlements, the other group wanted to defend/preserve the peace settlements.

§ US did not ratify the peace settlements and never joined the League of Nations as the public soon denounced Wilson and US reverted back to the Policy of Isolation to prevent any military engagement in future.

§ Italy felt cheated as it did not get all the territory that was promised to it in lieu of entering the war in 1915.

Russia became Communist

§ World War I led to rise of revolting Bolsheviks who were against the Russian participation in the war due to the economic burden it brought upon the Russian population.

§ There were two phases of Russian Revolution of 1917.

§ In the February Revolution (1917) the Czar was overthrown due to army mutinies and the civil unrest. A provisional government was setup but it failed to hold the promised elections.

§ Helped by the Germans, Lenin returned from exile to Russia and this paved way for the October Revolution (1917) that led to overthrow of the Provisional Government.

§ The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, came to power and a separate peace treaty was signed with Germany in 1917.

§ This treaty was very harsh upon the Russians and was used against the Germans when they complained about the Treaty of Versailles being immoral and excessively harsh.

Rise of US as a Hegemonic Power

Why did US entered the World War 1

§ US entered the war in 1917 when the German blockade of ships (1917) started targeting all the merchant vessels in Atlantic, including of the US.

§ The Zimmerman Plan was another factor which changed the public opinion in US in favor of entering the war. This plan was a product of German diplomat Zimmerman and entailed persuading Mexico to attack US.

§ Also, earlier US did not want to enter the war on side of the autocratic Czar. The spirit of American Revolution was behind the US reluctance. But the fall of the Czarist regime in Russia removed this barrier as well.

Factors which helped US emerge as the true winner from the World War I

§ The war was not fought on the US soil. Thus US escaped the usual damage to infrastructure and the consequent economic costs of reconstruction a war brings.

§ US intervened militarily only during the last phase of the World War I and thus it lost minimal soldiers in the warfare unlike the Europeans who had to deal with the shelling and the trench warfare.

§ US gave loans to the Allied Powers during the war and to the Germans after the end of the war to meet the reparation costs imposed on them under the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, US made a lot of money through World War I. Its war machine i.e. the military industries gained the most by selling weapons during and after the war. The decade after the war, till 1929 when the economic crisis hit US, was one of the most prosperous for US.

§ The leading role played by President Woodrow Wilson in the negotiations in Versailles is a symbolic proof of the stature of US during and after the World War I.

Thus, although even on the eve of World War I, US was the leading industrial economy, the World War I catalyzed its arrival on the world stage as a truly global power.

Imperialism continued

§ The German colonies were converted into Mandates.

§ Mandates were handed over to the victors for preparing them for independence at a suitable future date.

§ The British got the German colonies in Africa.

§ Ottoman Empire‘s territories of Iraq, Syria, Trans Jordan and Palestine were distributed as Mandates among France and Britain.

Introduction of new Weapons

§ Many new weapons were used for the first time in World War I.

§ Barbed Wires, Machine Guns, Tanks, Poison Gas and Shelling were put to great use.

§ This pushed the world away from peace and ensured that the future wars were more dangerous.

World War I did change the people’s outlook towards war

§ War was now condemned by many thinkers due to the high civilian casualties.

§ Before the World War I, war was cited as glorious and there was a dominating flavor of romanticism in the literature being published.

§ This changed after the World War I and writers like Hemingway began denouncing the war as inhuman.

§ Most viewed the World War I as a tragedy because it didn‘t need to happen, it didn‘t accomplish much and it only created socio-economic conditions that made World War II more likely.

Other Impacts

§ Russia did not gain much from peace settlement as the communist regime was not invited to the negotiations.

§ European economy suffered due to the war and European nations became dependent on loans from US for reconstruction.

§ Dismemberment of Ottoman Empire : The Ottoman empire disintegrated after its loss in the World War I and the new nation state of Turkey came into being.

§ Disintegration of Habsburg Empire: Austria-Hungary separated on their own just before the end of the World War I and the Habsburg empire came to an end.

§ League of Nations was created to ensure world peace and for social work.

League of Nations

League of Nations had its origin in the war aims of Allied Powers. Woodrow Wilson‘s 14 points had envisaged creation of an international agency that would work for maintenance of world peace.

§ Settle international disputes to prevent war in future.

§ This was to be achieved through the principle of collective security.

§ All the member nations were to collectively act against a nation who tried to wage a war.

§ This action against the aggressor nation would take form of economic sanctions and military action, if required.

§ Thus, maintenance of international peace and security was the primary goal of the League.

§ Economic and Social work: The League of Nations was to seek international cooperation for socio-economic development across the world.

League of Nations did important work for the socio-economic development across the world, specially, the work by International Labor Organization towards welfare of the workers and the contribution of League of Nations for rehabilitation of the refugees of the World War I was commendable. However, it failed with respect to its aim of being a leading forum for resolution of international disputes and ensuring a peaceful world.

Success of the League of Nations International Labour Organization (ILO)

§ Fixied maximum working days and minimum wages

§ Started old age pensions

§ Took actions in the area of welfare of the workers

The Refugee Organization

§ It helped the Prisoners of War in Russia to their homes outside Russia.

§ In 1933, it helped the Jews, who were fleeing to escape Nazi persecution, to resettle in different countries where they would be safe.

Health Organization

§ It did good work in finding causes of different epidemics.

§ It was especially successful in combating Typhus epidemic in Russia which had the potential to spread to the rest of Europe.

Mandates Commission

§ It had the responsibility of monitoring the governance of territories given to member nations as Mandates (former colonies of Ottoman Empire and Germany).

§ A separate commission, which was setup for supervising the governance in SAAR, was very efficient and successfully held a plebiscite there in 1935. After the plebiscite, SAAR was returned to Germany.

Resolution of minor International disputes -

§ Solved the dispute of smaller countries like Finland, Poland, Albania and Czech

§ But none of these disputes threatened the world peace.

§ Also whenever a major power was involved, the decision of the League was always in favour of the major power.

Failure of League of Nations

§ League of Nations lacked enforceable rights.

§ It did not have military force of its own.

§ Germany and Russia were not part of the league whereas India which was not even an independent country was made a member.

§ US which played the leading role did not join it.

§ In 1930s when many countries resorted to aggression, the League was ignored or defied.

§ It did not come forward in case Japanese attack on China in 1931 & Italy attack on Ethiopia in 1936.

§ It recognised the division of spoils of the war and most of the colonies were transferred as mandates not to be annexed thus undermining the very ideals with which it was formed.

§ Wilson had earlier said that the war was fought to make the world safe for democracy. The Allies had entered into many secret agreements for dividing the spoils of war. The Soviet Government exposed these secret treaties.

An overview of League of Nation

§ The League failed to implement its decisions in disputes, where the verdict of the League was against a major power.

§ Aggressive regimes like Japan, Italy and Germany defied the League. Britain and France did not do much to give teeth to the League.

§ The Economic Crisis of 1929 was also responsible in its own way.

§ The Conference of Ambassadors undermined League‘s authority.

§ Important powers like Germany, US, USSR were not its members.

§ The League Covenant was weak and it failed to provide a real collective security

League of Nations was not a truly representative organization

§ It had limited membership. This also resulted in lack of funds for the League‘s work.

§ The three main world powers, namely, USA, USSR and Germany were not its members when the League was formed in 1920.

§ Later, it became an organization of the French and the British and lacked the legitimacy of being called a truly representative world body.

§ Germany was admitted only by 1926, while USSR gained membership in 1934.

§ USA never joined the League of Nations and neither did it ratify the peace treaties.

§ After the World War I, the US public rejected Woodrow Wilson and his fourteen points and US reverted back to its Policy of Isolation.

§ The Republicans viewed League of nations as a world government, which would threaten US national sovereignty and freedom. It did not want to be involved in any future military conflict or to be involved in the European affairs.

§ By 1933, Japan had quit the League of Nations and soon after that the Hitler‘s Germany also left the League.

§ Thus, on the eve of the World War II, the League of Nations was in ruins and a failure.

Impact of the failure of the League of Nations

§ Gradually, small states lost all faith in the League of Nation due to its inaction against aggression

§ Fascist regimes got encouraged. Hitler became confident of violating the Treaty of Versailles.

§ World War II could not be prevented.

Chapter – 4

Russian Revolution & World Between the Two World Wars

Russian Revolution of 1917

Begining of Revolutionary Movements in Russia

§ Russia at the beginning of 20^th century was ruled by Czar, Nicholas II.

§ He was an autocrat & his policies were not popular among masses.

§ Criticism of the government reached climax in 1905 when Russia was defeated by Japan.

§ On 9 January 1905, a mass of peaceful workers with their wives and children was fired at in St. Petersburg while on its way to the Winter Palace to present a petition to the Czar

§ More than a thousand of them were killed and thousands of others were wounded.

§ This day is known as Bloody Sunday.

§ The news of killings provoked unprecedented disturbances throughout Russia.

§ Even sections of the army and the navy revolted.

§ It forced Czar to make concessions (October Manifesto).

§ This included granting of an elected parliament (Duma).

§ However the Duma was ineffective and did not further the cause of Russian people.

Why did Nicholas survive 1905 Revolution?

§ His opponents were not united.

§ There was no central leadership. The whole thing started spontaneously

§ He had been willing to compromise at critical moment.

§ Most of the army remained loyal.

Russian Revolution of 1917

With Nicholas flouting 1905 promises, there was bound to be a revolution sooner or later. The major causes leading to the revolution of 1917 were as follows:

§ Failure of Land Reforms

§ Serfdom had been abolished in 1861 but it did not improve the conditions of the peasants.

§ They still had miserably small landholdings with no capital to develop.

§ Late industrialization

§ More than half of the capital came from foreign countries.

§ They showed no concern for the condition of workers.

§ Russian capitalist competed with foreigners by reducing the wages.

§ The worker had no political rights.

§ Later there was a wave of industrial strikes after shooting incident in which hundreds of goldminers had lost their lives.

§ Government Repressions

§ Secret police employed by government eliminated revolutionaries.

§ Corruption in Royal Family

§ Czar Nicholas II still believed in the divine rights of kings.

§ Only nobility and upper layers of clergy supported him.

§ Bureaucracy was top heavy, inflexible and inefficient, the members were solely from privileged classes.

§ The royal family was discredited by large number of scandals and this further aggrieved the masses.

§ War Failures

§ Russian failures in First World War made revolution certain.

§ Bread became very scarce.

§ His tactical blunders led to heavy drain of wealth and death of more than 6 lakh Russian soldiers.

§ The aristocracy, the Duma, industrialists and army were beginning to turn against Nicholas.

Revival of Revolutionary Parties

§ Bolsheviks (Majority) and Mensheviks (Minority) revived.

§ Both groups had developed from an earlier movement the Social Democratic Labour Party.

§ Vladimir Lenin was a dynamic leader of Bolsheviks & Marxist in outlook

§ Bolsheviks wanted a small disciplined party of professional revolutionaries who would work full time to bring revolution.

§ He laid emphasis on working with peasants and getting them involved in revolutionary activities. On the other hand Mensheviks believed that revolution could not take place until the country was industrialized and industrial workers in majority over peasants.

In setting forth the fundamental law for a successful revolution’, Lenin included 2 conditions which arrived in Russia in 1917.

§ the people should fully understand that revolution is necessary and be ready to sacrifice their lives for it;

§ the existing government should be in a state of crisis to make it possible for it to be overthrown rapidly.

February and October Revolutions

Bread riots broke out in St Petersburg. The czar sent orders for troops to use force, however, some of the troops refused to fire. Mobs seized public buildings, released prisoners from jail. The Duma advisded Nicholas to set up a constitutional monarchy but he refused & sent more troops. Ultimately bowing down to the pressure czar abdicated his throne in favour of his brother but he refused to accept the throne and thus Russian monarchy came to an end.

§ A provisional government came to power under Alexander Kerensky who was a moderate socialist.

§ But the government failed miserably as It decided to continue the war which proved to be highly unpopular & his decision ended in a disaster

The most important demands of the people were fourfold: peace, land to the tiller, control of industry by workers, & equal status for the non-Russian nationalities.

§ Provisional Government did not implement any of these demands and lost the support of the people.

Lenin, who was in exile at the time of February Revolution, returned to Russia.

§ Under his leadership, the Bolshevik Party put forward clear policies to end the war and transfer land to the peasants and advanced the slogan ‗All Power to the Soviets‘.

§ On the question of non-Russian nationalities, Bolsheviks were the only party then with a clear policy.

Lenin had described the Russian empire as a ‗prison of nations‘ and had declared that no genuine democracy could be established unless all tile non-Russian peoples were given equal rights He had proclaimed the right of all peoples, including those under the Russian empire, to self-determination.

§ Finally on 20th October Petrograd Soviet attempted to seize power.

§ Bolshevik red guards occupied all key points and later arrested the provincial government.

§ It was a bloodless coup. The Bolsheviks knew exactly what they were aiming for, & were well disciplined and organised.

Russian Civil War

§ Soon the new state was involved in a civil war.

§ The officers of the army of the fallen Czar organised an armed rebellion against the Soviet state.

§ Troops of foreign powers — England, France, Japan, United States and other —joined them. War raged till 1920.

By this time the ‗Red Army‘ of the new state was in control of almost all lands of the old Czarist empire. The Red Army was badly equipped and composed mainly of workers and peasants However, it won over better equipped and better trained forces, just as the citizen armies in the American and French revolutions had won.

Importance of Russian Revolution

§ The overthrow of autocracy and the destruction of the aristocracy and the power of the church

§ Victory of communist philosophy & Marxian ideology – first time brought working class into power

§ Realisation of the old principle of ‗from each according to his capacity, to each according to his work‘.

§ Emergence of USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) which played an important role in WWII.

§ Mitigation of discrimination based on race, colour and sex.

§ Right to work become a constitutional right and it became a duty of the state to provide for employment.

§ Education was given a very high priority

Private property in the means of production was abolished and the motive of private profit eliminated from the system of production. Economic planning by the state was adopted to build a technologically advanced economy at a fast rate and to eliminate glaring inequalities in society.

Communist International (Third International or Comintern)

Communist International was formed for promoting revolutions on International Scale. Communist parties were formed in several other countries. Soviet Union became leader of Communist Movement across the world.

§ The group of countries that followed USSR ideology came to be known as Second World or ‗Socialist Block‘.

§ Revived the the idea, ‗He that does not work neither shall he eat‘, gained widespread acceptance, adding anew dignity to labour.

§ Socialists all over the world organized campaigns for putting an end to imperialism.

§ The new Soviet state came to be looked upon as a friend of the peoples of the colonies struggling for national independence.

§ Russia after the Revolution was the first country in Europe to openly support the cause of independence of all nations from foreign rule.

§ Immediately after the Revolution, the Soviet government had annulled the unequal treaties which the Czar had imposed on China.

§ It also gave assistance of various kinds to Sun Yat Sen in his struggle for the unification of China.

Fascism and Nazism

Fascism in Italy

§ The term ‗fascism‘ is of Italian origin.

§ It was first used for the movement which started in Italy under the leadership of Benito Mussolini.

§ Mussolini had organised armed gangs against socialists and communists in 1919.

Conditions that led to rise of Fascism in Italy

§ The Italian government shown little concern for the welfare of the agricultural and industrial workers whose conditions were miserable in the extreme. It instead, plunged Italy into the First World War in hope of gaining colonies.

§ However, the peace treaties failed to satisfy her ambitions. About 7 lakh Italians were killed in the war. The conditions of the people had worsened further.

§ The growing strength of socialist movement in Italy posed a threat to the existing system.

§ Italian government at the time was dominated by capitalists & landlords.

§ These sections began to support antidemocratic movements which promised to save them from the danger of socialism as well as to satisfy their colonial aspirations.

The movement started by Mussolini was one such movement. His armed gangs were used by landlords and industrialists to organize violence against socialists and communists. A systematic campaign of terrorism and murder was launched but the government showed little interest in curbing it.

Rise of Benito Mussolini

§ In 1921, elections were held in Italy. However, no single party could win a majority and no stable government could be formed.

§ In spite of the terror organized by Mussolini‘s gangs, his party could get only 35 seats while the socialists and communists together won 138 seats.

§ Mussolini openly talked of seizing power. In October 1922, he organized a march on Rome.

§ The government of Italy did not show any sign of resistance against the volunteers of Mussolini.

§ Instead, the king of Italy invited Mussolini to join the government.

§ Thus without firing a shot, fascists under Mussolini‘s leadership came to power in Italy. The takeover of the government by fascists was followed by a reign of terror.

§ The socialist movement was suppressed and many socialist and communist leaders were either jailed or killed.

§ In 1926 all political parties except Mussolini‘s party were banned.

The victory of fascism in Italy was neither the result of a victory in elections nor of a popular uprising. The government of Italy was handed over to the fascists because the ruling classes of Italy considered democracy and socialism as threats to their power.

Impact of Rise of Fascism

§ The fascists believed that there could be no harmony between two or more nations.

§ They glorified war & openly advocated the policy of expansion, and said that nations which do not expand cannot survive for long.

§ Victory of fascism not only led to the destruction of democracy and the suppression of socialist movement, it also led to the preparation for war.

Nazism in Germany

Nazism which was the German version of fascism was much more sinister than the original Italian version. The Nazis, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, established the most barbarous dictatorship of modern times.

§ The outbreak of revolution in Germany towards the end of the First World War led to the collapse of the German monarchy.

§ However, even though Germany became a republic, the forces behind the monarchy the industrialists, the big landowners and the officers of the army remained quite powerful.

§ The government of German republic was not able to destroy their power.

§ These forces began to turn to the anti-democratic forces represented by Nazism to extend their power and to check the power of the socialist movement

§ The term ‗Nazism‘is shorter version of the National Socialist German Workers‘ Party, founded by Hitler in 1921.

Rise of Nazism in Germany

§ Like Mussolini, Hitler also planned to capture power through a march on Berlin.

§ However, he was arrested & jailed, but released long before his term was over.

§ In jail he wrote his book Mein Kampf (literal meaning ‗My Struggle‘) which expressed some of the most monstrous ideas of the Nazi movement.

§ He glorified the use of force & brutality, & the rule by a great leader & ridiculed internationalism, peace and democracy.

§ He preached extreme hatred against the German Jews who were blamed not only for the defeat of Germany in the First World War but for all the ills of Germany.

§ He glorified violent nationalism and extolled war.

§ The dreadful ideas of the Nazis found favour with the army, the industrialists, the big landowners and the anti-republican politicians.

§ They began to look upon Hitler as the saviour of Germany.

Factors that led to rise of fascism

§ Nazis capitalized on the sense of humiliation which many Germans felt at their defeat in the war and the unjust provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

§ They also exploited the misery of the people which had worsened due to the reparations which Germany was made to pay to the Allied powers.

§ In 1929 occurred the most serious economic crisis which affected all the capitalist countries of the world.

§ As a result of this crisis, 8 million workers, about half of the working population of Germany, were rendered unemployed.

§ It was during this period, the Nazi Party, which was no more than a conspiratorial group in the beginning, began to spread its influence.

§ Social Democratic Party and Communist Party were powerful parties with huge following.

§ In the elections held in Germany before Hitler came to power, the Nazi Party had polled less votes than the Socialist and Communist vote put together.

§ It had won only 196 seats out of a total of about 650.

§ Socialist and Communist parties, however, failed to unite against the Nazis.

§ Thus, the victory of Nazism in Germany, like that of fascism in Italy, was neither the outcome of a popular uprising, nor the result of a sham march on Berlin such as Mussolini‘s on Rome. Hitler‘s coming to power was the result of political intrigues.

Inspite of poor showing in elections, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of Germany in 1933. Within a few weeks, the entire fabric of democracy in Germany was shattered.

§ Soon after coming to power, Hitler ordered fresh elections and let loose a reign of terror.

§ Assassination of anti-Nazi leaders was organized on a large scale.

§ Reichstag (Parliament) building was set on fire by the Nazis.

§ The Communist Party Germany was blamed for the fire and was suppressed.

§ In spite of the terror organized by the Nazis, Nazi Party could not win a majority of seats in Parliament. However, Hitler assumed dictatorial powers and, in 1934, became the President.

§ Trade unions were suppressed & socialists, communists & anti Nazi political leaders were exterminated.

§ Nazis started huge bonfires to burn the works of some of the best writers of Germany & other countries

§ Besides socialists and communists, Jews were made victims of an organized campaign of humiliation & violence.

Within a few years they were to be completely exterminated. Simultaneously, a massive programme of militarization was launched and preparations for war began. The victory of Nazism was a calamity not only for the German people but for entire Europe and many other parts of the world.

Comparison of Fascism vs Nazism Similarity between Fascism & Nazism

§ Both were anti communist and supported by wealthy capitalist and industrialists.

§ Both aimed for totalitarian state and controlled industry, agriculture and the way of life of the people.

§ Attempted to make the country self-sufficient.

§ Emphasized the supremacy of the state. Glorified war, nationalism and cult of the leader.

§ Rebirth of the nation was given prime importance. Education was highly supervised.

§ Indoctrination of young mind and blind obedience to state was taught.

Differences between Fascism & Nazism

§ Fascism never seemed to take deep roots in Italy as it did in Germany.

§ Italian system was not as efficient as Germany. Italians could not achieve the stated goals of self sufficiency and removal of unemployment.

§ Italian system was not as ruthless as that in Germany and there were no mass atrocities.

§ Italian fascism was not anti Jewish or racist. Mussolini was more successful with his religious policies.

Europe & US After World War 1

§ The twenty years between the First and Second World Wars were a period of tremendous changes all over the world.

§ A major economic crisis took place during this period which affected almost every part of the world and, more particularly, the most advanced capitalist countries of the West.

§ In Asia & Africa, the period saw an unprecedented awakening of the people which found its fulfilment after the 2^nd World War.

Europe between the Wars

§ Misery caused by the First World War influenced the political developments in many countries.

§ Inspired by the Russian Revolution, there were revolutions in many other countries of Europe .

§ There were movements in other parts of Europe for improvement in living conditions.

§ Revolution in Germany towards the end of the war forced the German emperor to flee the country & Germany became a republic.

§ The period saw the growth of socialist and communist par ties in almost every country of Europe

§ However, within a few years in many countries of Europe, the socialist movements were defeated and dictatorial governments came to power.

§ These governments not only suppressed socialist movements but also destroyed democracy.

§ The emergence of dictatorial governments in Europe in this period had dangerous consequences not only for the peoples of Europe but for the whole world.

§ The most dangerous development was the triumph of fascism in Italy & Germany which paved the way for Second World War.

Developments in Britain and France

The two major countries of Europe which did not succumb to fascist movements were Britain and France. However, both these countries were faced with serious economic difficulties.

Britain

§ The workers‘ movement made great advances.

§ 1929, Britain was badly affected by the worldwide economic crisis.

§ In 1931, National government comprising the Conservative, the Labour and the Liberal parties was formed.

§ This government took some steps to over come the serious economic difficulties though the unemployment situation remained serious.

§ After the victory of fascism in Germany, a fascist movement started in Britain but it could not make much headway and Britain continued as a democratic country.

France

§ The government of France for many years was dominated by big bankers and industrialists.

§ It hoped that by making use of the resources of German areas which came under her control after the war, it would be able to make France economically strong.

§ However, these hopes were not fulfilled. France could not attain political stability also.

§ Many governments came and fell. Political instability was made worse as a result of the economic crisis, and corruption became rampant.

§ Fascist movement raised its head and there was violence in the streets.

§ Ultimately, to meet the threat posed by fascist and other antidemocratic forces, a government comprising Socialist, Radical Socialist and Communist parties was formed in 1936.

§ This is known as the Popular Front government and it lasted for about two years. During this period many important economic reforms were introduced in France.

Thus Britain and France succeeded in remaining democratic countries even though they were faced with serious problems. However, the foreign policy of these countries was not conducive to the maintenance of democracy in other parts of Europe and in preventing the outbreak of war

United States Emerges as the Strongest Power

One of the most important features of the period after the First World War was decline in the supremacy of Europe in the world and the growing importance of the United States of America.

§ US emerged as the richest and the most powerful country in the world at the end of the war.

§ This was clear from the important role that she played during the framing of the peace treaties.

§ While the war had severely damaged the economy of the European countries, the economy of USA during this time had in fact become stronger.

§ US made tremendous industrial progress and was beginning to make heavy investments in Europe.

US gave loans to the Allied Powers during the war and to the Germans after the end of the war to meet the reparation costs imposed on them under the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, US made a lot of money through World War I. Its war machine i.e. the military industries gained the most by selling weapons during and after the war. The decade after the war till 1929 was one of the most prosperous for US.

The Great Depression of 1929

The worldwide economic crisis which began in 1929 originated in USA. The years after the First World War saw a big increase in production of goods in America. In spite of this, however, more than half of the population lived at less than the minimum subsistence level.

§ As capitalist tried to maximize their profits by producing more & more goods, a crisis was caused by the overproduction.

§ Production increased but the purchasing power of the workers remained low, & the goods could not be sold unless their prices are reduced.

§ However, the prices could not be reduced because this would affect the profits.

§ So the goods remained unsold and the factories were closed to stop further production.

§ With the closure of factories people were thrown out of employment which made the situation worse.

§ Such crises occurred often in almost every country after the spread of the Industrial Revolution.

§ The crisis of 1929 – 33 was, however, was the worst in history.

§ In October 1929, the entire economy began to collapse.

§ The stock market in New York Crashed.

§ The fall in the value of shares created so much panic that in one day 16 million shares were sold in NY Stock Exchange.

§ In some companies, the shares held by people became totally worthless.

§ During the next four years, more than 9,000 American banks closed down and millions of people lost their life‘s savings.

§ The manufacturers and farmers could not get any money to invest.

§ People had little money to buy, hence the goods could not be sold.

§ This led to the closing of thousands of factories and throwing of workers out of employment.

§ The purchasing power of the people was thus further reduced which led to the closing down of more factories and to more unemployment.

Spread of Depression to Europe

The Depression began to spread to all the capitalist countries of Europe in 1931. After the First World War, the economies of the countries of Europe, excluding Russia, had become closely connected with and even dependent on the economy of USA, particularly on the American banks. The consequences of the Depression in Europe were similar to those in the USA and in some cases even worse.

§ The Depression resulted in large scale unemployment, loss of production, poverty and starvation.

§ It continued throughout the 1930s, even though after 1933, economies of the affected countries began to recover.

§ The crisis as long as it lasted was the most terrible &affected the lives of scores of millions of people all over the world.

§ Thousands of factories, banks and business enterprises stopped working.

§ The industrial production fell by about 35 per cent, in some countries by about half.

Impact of the Great Depression

§ The economic crisis had serious political consequences.

§ Nazis in Germany exploited the discontent of the people to promote their anti-democratic programme.

§ In many countries, hunger marches were organized and the socialist movement pressed for far-reaching changes in the economic system.

§ The only country which was not affected by the economic crisis of 1929-33 was USSR

§ The economic crisis worst affected—the economy of the United States. It led to the victory of the Democratic Party and Franklin D. Roosevelt became the President of the United States in 1933.

§ Under his leadership a programme of economic reconstruction and social welfare was started.

§ This programme is known as the New Deal.

§ Steps were taken to improve the conditions of workers and to create employment.

§ As a result of the New Deal, the economy of the United States recovered from the crisis and the industrial production picked up again.

The United States had retained her position as a mighty power. However, her foreign policy was not very different from that of Britain and France. It, like Britain and France, did not adopt a strong position to resist aggressive acts of fascist powers until after the outbreak of the Second World War.

Rise of Soviet Union after World War 1

The period after the First World War saw the emergence of Soviet Union as a major power. The military intervention by Britain, France, USA and Japan in Russia in support of the counter-revolutionary forces had been defeated & foreign armies driven out by 1920.

§ Russia‘s participation in First World War & long period of civil war plus foreign intervention which followed the revolution had completely shattered the economy of the country.

§ This was a period of acute economic distress for the people.

§ There was a severe shortage of food.

§ The production of industrial goods had fallen far below the prewar level.

§ To make the distribution of goods equitable in conditions of severe scarcity, certain strong measures were taken

§ Peasants were made to part with their produce which was in excess of what was essential for their own needs.

§ They were not allowed to sell it in the market.

§ The payment of salaries in cash was stopped and instead people were paid in kind, that is foodstuffs and manufactured goods.

§ These measures had created unrest among the peasants and other sections of society but were accepted because they were considered essential to defend the revolution.

§ After the civil war ended, these measures were withdrawn & in 1921, & the New Economic Policy was introduced -

§ Peasants were allowed to sell their produce in open markets, payment of wages in cash was reintroduced

§ Production of goods and their sale in some industries under private control was permitted.

Formation of Soviet Union

The main centres of the revolution in 1917 were in Russia. Shortly, the revolution spread to many other parts of the old Russian empire & the Bolshevik Party & its supporters formed governments in the areas inhabited by non-Russian nationalities.

In 1922 all these territories were formally united in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), for short Soviet Union, which was a federation of many republics.

§ After death of Lenin in 1924 many serious differences arose within the ruling Communist Party, the only political party which existed — over policies to be followed.

§ There was also serious struggle for power between different groups and individual leaders.

§ In this struggle, Stalin emerged victorious.

§ By 1930s, almost all the leaders who had played an important role in revolution & in the following years were eliminated.

§ False charges were brought against them, & after fake trials they were executed.

§ Political democracy & freedom of speech and press were destroyed.

§ The expression of differences even within the party was not tolerated.

§ Stalin, who had been the General Secretary of the Communist Party, assumed dictatorial powers which he exercised till his death in 1953.

§ These developments had an adverse effect on the building of socialism in the USSR and introduced features which were contrary to the humanistic ideals of Marxism and of the revolution.

§ The development of art and literature also suffered because of restrictions on freedom.

Russian Five Year Plans

§ In 1929, the USSR slated its vigorous programme of economic reconstruction & industrialization when it adopted the first of a series of its Five Year Plans.

§ Within a few years, the Soviet Union emerged as a major industrial power.

§ The extraordinary economic progress that the Soviet Union achieved was against heavy odds.

Though the foreign intervention had been ended, many countries of Europe, and the United States followed a policy of economic boycott with the aim of destroying the revolution. However, the Soviet Union not only survived but continued to grow economically at a fast rate. It was the only country which remained unaffected by the economic crisis of 1929-33 Agricultural Reforms in Russia: Collective Farming

§ Major changes were introduced in agriculture.

§ After the revolution the estates of the landlords, the church and the nobility had been confiscated and distributed among the peasants.

§ The small landholdings or farms were considered not very productive.

§ To increase production, it was considered essential to introduce farm machinery but this could be done only if the size of the farms was large.

§ For this, the government started its own farms & adopted the policy of promoting collective farming by bonging the small farms of the peasants together.

§ In these farms, individual ownership of farms by peasants was ended and the peasants worked on these ‗collective farms‘collectively.

§ The government pursued the policy of collectivization vigorously and by 1937 almost all cultivable land was brought under collective farms.

Soviet Union vs The West

The Soviet Union was not recognized by most European powers and USA for a long time. However, with its growing strength it could not be ignored and gradually one country after another recognized her.

§ Britain established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1933.

§ In 1934 she also became a member of the League of Nations.

§ However, in spite of the ending of the isolation of the Soviet Union, the hostility towards the Soviet Union continued.

§ West continued to regard the Soviet Union as a danger to them and hoped that the fascist countries would destroy her.

§ Their hostility to the Soviet Union led to the appeasement of fascist powers and paved the way for the Second World War.

The Soviet Union followed a policy of support to the movements for independence. The help given to China is notable in this context. When the fascist countries started their acts of aggression, the Soviet government pressed for action against them.

Nationalist Movements in Asia and Africa after World War 1

The period following the First World War saw the strengthening of the movements of the peoples of Asia and Africa for independence.

§ Many leaders of freedom movements in Asia and Africa had supported the war effort in the hope that their countries would win freedom, or at least more rights after war was over.

§ Their hopes had been belied and the imperialist leaders soon made it clear that the wartime slogans of freedom and democracy were not meant for colonies.

§ However, the war had weakened the imperialist countries and had contributed to the awakening of the colonial peoples.

§ Their struggles for freedom entered a new phase after the war.

§ The support of Soviet Union further added to the strength of the freedom movements.

§ Even though most of the countries of Asia & Africa emerged as independent nations after the Second World War, the period after the First World War saw serious weakening of imperialism.

Nationalist Movements in Asia

§ In India this was the period when the freedom movement became a mass movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

§ In Indonesia, there were uprisings against the Dutch rule. In 1927 National Party Was organised with the aim of achieving independence.

§ In Korea there was a movement for independence from Japanese rule.

§ Iran had been divided into Russian and British spheres of influence before the First World War.

§ The Soviet government after the revolution of 1917 had given up the sphere under her control & had withdrawn all her troops from there.

§ British, however, tried to extend their influence over the entire country.

§ These efforts were met with a widespread uprising. In 1921, power was seized by Reza Khan who in 1925 became the emperor.

§ British troops left Iran & modernization of Iran began.

§ The British government had waged many wars against Afghanistan in the nineteenth century.

§ As a result of these wars, the independence of Afghanistan had been curbed.

§ The foreign relations of Afghanistan had passed under British control.

§ In 1919, king of Afghanistan was assassinated & his son, Amanullah became the King.

§ Amanullah proclaimed complete independence of Afghanistan, which was immediately recognized by the Soviet Union.

§ The British government in India waged a war against the new Afghan government but in the end Britain agreed to recognize independence of Afghanistan.

§ There was an upsurge in Arab countries against Britain and France.

§ The Arabs had been asked by the Allies, during the First World War, to fight against their Ottoman rulers.

§ However, the end of the war did not result in the independence of Arab countries.

§ Britain and France had extended their control over these countries as their protectorates and ‗mandates‘.

§ There were uprisings against Britain in Egypt and Britain was forced in 1922 to grant independence to Egypt though British troops continued to stay there.

§ Syria had been handed over to France after the war.

§ However, from the very beginning France met with intense opposition there.

§ In 1925 there was an open rebellion and the French government resorted to a reign of terror.

§ The city of Damascus which became a centre of revolt was reduced to ruins when the French troops bombed the city from the air and made use of heavy artillery to shell the city.

§ However, in spite of these massacres, the resistance to French rule continued.

Nationalist Movement in Turkey

Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire after Turkey‘s defeat in the First World War led many nations which were formerly under the subjugation of the Ottoman Empire, become free. Arab territories of the empire had been given away to Britain and France as mandates after the First World War.

§ The Allies, however, did not stop at the dismemberment of the empire.

§ They wanted to establish their domination over Turkey itself and to give away parts of Turkey to Greece & Italy.

§ The treatment meted out to Turkey by the Allies had led to a mass upsurge in India directed against Britain.

§ This upsurge is known as the Khilafat movement which had merged with the Indian nationalist movement.

The nationalist movement in Turkey was organised to prevent the domination of the country by the Allied powers and the annexation of parts of Turkey by Greece & Italy.

The Sultan of Turkey agreed to the terms dictated by the, Allied powers -

§ However, even before the treaty was signed by Sultan, a national government had been established under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal with its headquarters at Ankara.

§ This government signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet government in 1921 under which Turkey received Soviet political support and arms for the nationalist cause.

§ Following the treaty with the Sultan, Turkey was invaded by Greece.

§ The Turks under Kemal‘s leadership were able to repel the invasion & Allies were forced to repudiate the earlier treaty.

§ The Allied troops were withdrawn from Turkish territory and the areas which were to be annexed by European countries remained in Turkey.

§ Thus Turkey was able to win her complete independence.

Turkey was proclaimed a republic.The new government abolished the institution of Caliph. Education was taken out of the hands of the religious leaders. Religion was separated from the state. The revolution in Turkey became a source of inspiration for the movements for freedom in Asia. It also helped to promote the ideas of social reform and modernization.

Nationalist Movements in China

In 1911, there was a revolution in China which resulted in the establishment of a republic. However, power was passed into the hands of corrupt governors called warlords.

§ National movement in China aimed at overthrowing of foreign domination and the unification of China by ending the rule of warlords.

§ The founder of the national movement in China was Dr. Sun Yat Sen.

§ He played an important role in 1911 revolution; & in 1917 set up a government at Canton in south China.

§ The party formed by him called Kuomintang led the national struggle in China for a number of years.

§ Russian Revolution had a deep impact on China.

§ The new government in Russia had renounced all unequal treaties which Russian emperors had imposed on China and promised full support to the Chinese national struggle.

§ In 1921 the Communist Party of China was formed.

§ In 1924, the Kuomintang and the Communist Party decided to work together and the Soviet government gave various kinds of aid, such as the training of a revolutionary army.

§ A number of Soviet political and military advisers worked with the Chinese liberation movement.

§ After the death of Sun Yat Sen in 1925, the unity between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party was broken & period of civil war began.

In 1930s when the Japanese attacked China with the aim of subjugating the entire country, the two parties agreed to work together to resist the Japanese invasion. The Communist Party played a leading role in the war of resistance against the Japanese invasion. It was able to establish its supremacy in the country and within a few years after the end of the Second World War was victorious in the civil war.

Nationalist Movements in Africa

§ This period also saw the emergence of political and national consciousness in Africa.

§ Though the struggles for national independence in Africa gained momentum after the Second World War, the 1920s & 1930s were a period when the first political associations were formed.

§ An important role in the growth of national consciousness in Africa was played by a series of Pan African Congresses.

§ The Pan African movement asserted the identity and unity of the African people, and independence of Africa.

§ The people of Ethiopia fought heroically against the Italian invasion in1935-36 and their resistance served as a source of inspiration to the people of Africa.

The national awakening of the people of Asia and Africa and the growing strength of their struggle for freedom were factors of great importance in the making of the modern world. While the long oppressed peoples in these two continents were beginning to assert their right to independence, preparations for another war were being made in Europe.

Fascist Aggression Between the Two World Wars

In 1930s the fascist powers began their wars of conquest which ultimately led to the Second World War. The major fascist countries were Italy and Germany. They acquired an ally in the militarist regime which came to power in Japan viz. wars against China and Russia, the conquest of Korea and her acquisition of the German spheres in China after the First World War.

§ These three started series of aggression in Europe, Asia & Africa.

§ All of them claimed to have been fighting against communism and were united in 1937 under the Anti-Comintern Pact.

§ Germany, Italy and Japan came to be known as Axis Powers.

§ When the acts of aggression began, the aggrieved countries, Soviet Union & many other countries of the world demanded collective action against the aggression.

§ In 1935, the Communist International advocated the formation of Popular Fronts consisting of Communists, Socialists and other antifascists to counter the danger of fascism.

§ Comintern‘ s advocacy of uniting all antifascist forces was followed by the formation of Popular Fronts in many countries.

§ The policy of Popular Front also had a significant influence in bringing together various anti-imperialist forces in the colonies.

Why Fascist Aggression Got Succeeded

Covenant of the League of Nations contained a provision for economic & military sanctions and collective action against aggression. However, the Western governments, instead of resisting the aggressions, followed a policy of appeasement of the aggressive powers.

§ Germany, Italy & Japan which launched a series of aggressions in the 1930s claimed that they were fighting communism.

§ Hitler had time & again declared that Germany had ambitions of conquering the vast resources and territory of the Soviet Union.

§ Since the success of the Russian Revolution, the Western countries had been haunted by the danger of communism and they hoped that fascist countries would rid them of this danger.

The landowners, aristocrats, industrialists, bankers, high churchmen, army leaders — magnates of every kind in Western Europe, together with many middleclass elements —had never lost their fear that their own workers and peasants might demand a social revolution, perhaps one spearheaded and organized by communists. Their support of fascism as a force, albeit a gangster one, which would defeat communism and at the same time leave the vested interests largely in control, had been instinctive and sincere.

Japanese Invasion of China

§ One of the first major acts of aggression after the First World War was the Japanese invasion of China in 1931.

§ A minor incident involving a railway line owned by the Japanese in Manchuria, the northeastern province of China, was made the pretext for the invasion.

§ China, a member of the League of Nations, appealed to the League for sanctions against Japan to stop the aggression.

§ However, Britain and France, the leading countries in the League, were completely indifferent to the appeal and acquiesced in the aggression.

§ Japan occupied Manchuria, installed a puppet government there & proceeded to conquer more areas. The United States also did nothing to counter the aggression.

§ In 1933, Japan quit League of Nations. It had also started seizing the British and American property in China.

§ However, the appeasement of Japan continued, as the Western countries thought that the Japanese could be used to weaken China as well as the Soviet Union.

§ Britain had an additional reason as it did not want to alienate Japan and thus endanger her possessions in Asia.

German Militarization

§ Germany had been admitted to the League of Nations sometime after its formation but soon after Hitler came to power

§ Hitler quit the League and undertook a massive programme of militarization.

§ According to the Treaty of Versailles, severe restrictions had been imposed on the military strength of Germany.

§ The beginning of German remilitarization in violation of the Treaty created a sense of insecurity in many countries, particularly France.

§ It was in this situation that the Soviet Union became a member of the League in 1934.

§ However, nothing was done to stop German remilitarization.

§ According to the Treaty of Versailles, the German area bordering France called the Rhineland had been demilitarized to make a German attack on France difficult.

§ In 1936, Hitler‘s troops entered Rhineland in violation of the Treaty. Though this step alarmed France, nothing was done to stop Germany.

Italian Invasion of Ethiopia

§ In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia

§ On the appeal of Ethiopia; the League of Nations passed a resolution condemning Italy as an aggressor.

§ The resolution also mentioned the use of economic sanctions against Italy, including a ban on the sale of arms to Italy.

§ However, no action was taken to punish Italy and by 1936 Italy had completed the conquest of Ethiopia.

The Spanish Civil War

The next event which marked the beginning of an alliance between Germany and Italy was the intervention by these two countries in Civil War in Spain.

§ In 1931 Spain became republic.

§ In 1936 a Popular Front comprising Socialist, Communist and other democratic and antifascist parties came to power.

§ A section of the army under the leadership of General Franco with the armed support of Italy & Germany revolted against the government.

§ Italy & Germany started intervening openly in the Civil War that followed.

§ They sent forces, tanks & warships in support of the rebels.

§ German aircrafts conducted air raids on Spanish towns and villages.

§ The government of the Spanish Republic appealed for help against the fascists.

§ Only the Soviet Union came to the help of the Republican forces.

§ Britain and France advocated a policy of nonintervention and refused to give any aid to the government of Spain

§ They remained Indifferent to the German & Italian intervention in the war.

However, the cause of the Republicans evoked tremendous response the world over .

§ Thousands of antifascist volunteers from many countries including many antifascist Germans were organized into international brigades who went to Spain and fought alongside the Spaniards against fascism.

§ Thousands of them were killed in Spain.

§ Some of the best writers and artists of the 20^th century actively supported the cause of the Republicans.

§ The sacrifice of their lives by thousands of non-Spaniards in Spain in the cause of freedom and democracy is one of the finest examples of internationalism in history.

The Civil War in Spain continued for three years. About a million people were killed in the war. Finally, the fascist forces under General Franco succeeded in destroying the Republic in 1939. Soon the new government was recognized by most of the Western powers. The victory of fascism was the result of the Western countries‘ appeasement of fascism, which made the fascist countries more aggressive.

The Munich Pact

§ Munich Pact was the final act of appeasement of fascism by the Western powers

§ While the Spanish Civil War was still going on, Hitler‘s troops marched into Austria in March 1938 and occupied it.

§ Even though this was a violation of the peace treaties signed after the First World War, Western powers did not protest against it.

§ Hitler claimed a part of Czechoslovakia called Sudetenland which had substantial German population.

§ This area formed about 1/5^th of the area of Czechoslovakia and had one of the largest munition factories in the world.

§ Instead of meeting the threat posed by Germany, the Prime Ministers of Britain & France met Hitler & Mussolini at Munich in Germany in 1938 and agreed to Germany s terms without the consent of Czechoslovakia.

§ By 1939 entire Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany.

Munich Pact as the last major act of appeasement by the Western powers

§ The only way the fascist aggression could have been checked & another world war prevented was an alliance of the Western powers with the Soviet Union

§ However, the Western policies of appeasement had convinced the Soviet Union that their main interest was to divert the German expansion towards the Soviet Union.

§ The Munich Pact was an additional proof to the Soviet Union that the Western powers were trying to appease Germany with a view to directing her aggression eastward against the Soviet Union.

§ The Soviet Union at this time signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Germany in August 1939.

§ The signing of this Pact by the Soviet Union shocked antifascists the world over.

§ Thus Britain & France promised to come to the aid of Poland, Greece, Rumania & Turkey in case their independence was endangered.

Chapter- 5

World War 2, Post War Independence & Restructuring of the World

Second World War

The Second World War, like the First, started in Europe and assumed the character of a world war. In spite of the fact that Western countries had acquiesced all the aggressions of Japan, Italy and Germany from the invasion of Manchuria to the annexation of Czechoslovakia, the fascist countries‘ ambitions had not been satisfied. These countries were planning another redivision of the world and thus had to come into conflict with the established imperialist.

§ The Western policy of diverting the aggression of the fascist countries towards the Soviet Union failed with the signing of Soviet German Non-Aggression Pact.

§ Thus the war began in Europe between the fascist countries & the major West European Powers—Britain and France.

§ Within a few months it became a world war & ultimately involved almost every country in the world.

The Invasion of Poland

After the First World War, East Prussia had been separated from the rest of Germany. The city of Danzig which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany had been made a free city independent of German control. Hitler had demanded the return of Danzig to Germany but Britain refused to accept this demand.

§ On 1 September 1939 German armies marched into Poland.

§ On 3 September Britain & France declared war on Germany.

§ Thus the invasion of Poland marked the beginning of the Second World War.

§ German armies completed the conquest of Poland in less than three weeks as no aid reached Poland.

§ In spite of declaration of war from Britain & France, however, there was little actual fighting for many months.

§ Therefore, the war during this period from September 1939 to April 1940 when Germany invaded Norway and Denmark is known as the ‗phoney war‘.

Soon after the German invasion of Poland, the Soviet Union attacked eastern Poland and occupied the territories which were earlier in the Russian empire. It is believed that this was a part of the secret provisions of the Soviet German Non-Aggression Pact. In 1940, the Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania which had become independent after the First World War were also occupied by the Soviet Union. In November 1939, Soviet Union also went to war against Finland.

Conquest of Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France

§ Germany launched her invasion of Norway and Denmark in April 1940 and within three weeks completed the conquest of these two countries.

§ In Norway, the German invaders were helped by Quisling, leader of Norway‘s fascist party, who set up a puppet government in Norway under German occupation.

§ The very name ‗Quisling‘ has come to mean a traitor who collaborates with the invaders of his country.

§ In early May began the invasion of Belgium and Holland which was completed before the end of May.

§ Soon the German armies marched into France and by 14 June 1940, the capital city of Paris had fallen into German hands almost without a fight.

§ In the meantime, Italy also joined the war on the side of her ally, Germany.

§ On 22 June 1940, French government surrendered & signed a truce with Germany acc. to which about half of France was occupied by Germany.

The remaining part remained under the French government which required disbanding the French army & providing for the maintenance of the German army in France. French government which had surrendered to Germany ruled from Vichy. With the defeat of France, Germany became the supreme power of Europe. The war conducted by Germany with great speed, known as blitzkrieg which means a ‗lightning war‘.

The Battle of Britain

§ Britain was the only major power left in Europe after the fall of France.

§ Germany thought that Britain would surrender soon as she was without any allies in Europe.

§ German air force began bombing raids on Britain in August 1940 with the aim of terrorizing her into surrender .

§ The Royal Air Force of Britain played a heroic role in its defence against air raids & conducted air raids on German territories in retaliation.

§ Under the leadership of Winston Churchill, the people of Britain successfully resisted the German air raids.

In the meantime, Italy started military operations in North Africa & also invaded Greece, but the Italian attack in both the areas was repulsed. However, Germany succeeded in capturing the Balkans – Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and also large parts of North Africa.

German Invasion of Soviet Union

Having conquered almost the entire Europe, except Britain, Germany attacked Soviet Union, despite the Non-Aggression Pact, in June 1941. As, Hitler always coveted the vast territory & resources of Soviet Union.

§ In the first phase of the war, Germany achieved significant victories.

§ Vast areas of Soviet Union were devastated, Leningrad was besieged & German troops were marching towards Moscow.

§ However, in spite of the initial German successes, German onslaught was halted.

§ The Soviet Union had built up her industrial and military strength.

§ She resisted the German invasion heroically & German hopes of a quick victory were thwarted.

With the German invasion of the Soviet Union, a new vast theatre of war had been opened. An important development that followed was the emergence of the British – Soviet – American unity to fight against aggression. Soon after the invasion, Churchill and Roosevelt declared British and American‘ support, respectively, to the Soviet Union in the war against Germany and promised aid to her. Subsequently, agreements were signed between the Soviet Union and Britain, and Soviet Union and USA.

Timeline Of Second World War

Attack on Pearl Harbour: Entry of USA in World War

§ Japan was one of the 3 members of the AntiComintern Pact along with Germany & Italy.

§ In Dec 1941, the Japanese, without a declaration of war, conducted a massive raid on American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.

§ The American Pacific Fleet which was stationed there was devastated.

§ The Americans lost 20 warships, and about 250 aircrafts. About 3000 persons were killed. The Americans were completely taken unaware.

§ Negotiations had been going on between the Japanese and American governments to settle their differences in Asia & the Pacific.

§ The attack on Pearl Harbor in the midst of negotiations showed that the Japanese were determined to conquer Asia and the Pacific.

§ With this the Second World War became truly global.

§ The United States declared war on Japan and soon after Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.

§ Following the US entry into the war, many countries in the America joined the war against Germany, Italy and Japan.

The Japanese achieved significant victories in the war in Asia. Within six months of the attack on Pearl Harbor, they conquered Malaya, Burma, Indonesia, the Philippines,

Singapore, Thailand, Hongkong and numerous other areas. By the middle of 1942, the fascist powers had reached the peak of their power. After that the decline began.

The Battle of Stalingrad

In January 1942 the unity of the countries fighting against the fascist powers was cemented. Representatives of 26 nations, including Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union, signed a declaration, known as the United Nations Declaration. The signatories to this Declaration resolved to utilize all their resources to pursue the war until victory was achieved & to cooperate with one another against the common enemy, and promised not to have a separate peace treaty.

§ One of the most important turning points in the world war was the Battle of Stalingrad.

§ In November and December 1941, the German advance on Moscow met with stubborn resistance and the invasion was repulsed.

§ Germany then launched an offensive in southern Russia.

§ In August 1942, the German troops reached the outskirts of Stalingrad. Civilian population of Stalingrad joined the soldiers in the defence of the city.

§ In February 1943, German officers and soldiers surrendered. In all, Germany had lost about 3 lakh men in this battle.

§ This battle turned the tide of the war.

Opening of Second Front

§ Fascist countries began to suffer reverses. Japan failed to capture Australia & Hawaii.

§ The destruction of the fascist army in North Africa was also a major turning point in the war.

§ In July 1943, British and American troops occupied Sicily. Many sections in Italy had turned against Mussolini.

§ He was arrested and a new government was formed. This government joined the war against Germany.

§ However, German troops invaded northern Italy & Mussolini, who had escaped with the help of Germans, headed a proGerman government there.

§ Meanwhile, British & American troops entered Italy and a long battle to throw the Germans out of Italy followed.

§ The Soviet Union was attaining significant victories against Germany & had already entered Czechoslovakia & Rumania which had been under German occupation.

On June 1944, British and American troops landed on the coast of Normandy in France. The opening of this front played a very crucial role in the defeat of Germany. This is known as the opening of the ‗Second Front‘. Soviet ‗Union had been demanding the opening of the second front for long, as this would compel Germany to fight on other fronts also & would thus hasten the defeat of Germany. From this time onwards the German armies were on the run on all fronts.

End of the War in Europe

§ After June 1944, German armies had to face the forces of Allies from three directions.

§ In Italy, the British and American troops were advancing.

§ Northern & western France and the city of Paris had been freed and the Allied troops were moving towards Belgium and Holland.

§ On the eastern front, the Germans were facing a collapse.

The Soviet army from the east and other Allied troops from the west were closing on Germany. On May 1945 the Soviet armies entered Berlin. Hitler committed suicide & on 7 May 1945 Germany unconditionally surrendered.

Nuke Attack on Japan

§ After the defeat of Germany, the war in Asia continued for another three months.

§ Britain & USA had launched successful operations against Japan in the Pacific, the Philippines and Burma.

§ In spite of serious reverses, however, Japanese were still holding large parts of China.

§ On 6 August 1945, an atom bomb, the deadliest weapon developed during the war, was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.

§ With one single bomb, the city of Hiroshima was obliterated.

§ Another atom bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945. The city was destroyed.

§ In the meantime, the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan and started military operations against Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea.

On 14 August Japan conveyed its acceptance of the Allied demand to surrender but the actual surrender took place on 2 September 1945. With the Japanese surrender, the Second World War came to an end.

Damage Caused by the World War

§ The Second World War was the most destructive war in history.

§ The destruction caused by the war in terms of human lives has no precedent in history.

§ Over 50 million people perished in the Second World War.

§ Of them about 22 million were soldiers and over 28 million civilians.

§ Some countries lost a large percentage of their population for example, Poland, Soviet Union, Germany.

§ Besides the human losses, the economy & material resources of many countries were badly damaged.

§ Many ancient cities were almost completely destroyed.

§ Many new weapons of destruction were devised and used in the Second World War.

§ The most dreadful of these was the atom bomb.

Brutality By Fascists Countries

§ The fascists converted a large part of Europe into a vast graveyard and a slave camp.

§ Inside Germany and in those parts of Europe which came under German occupation before and during the war, Jews were picked up and six million of them were exterminated.

§ Millions of people were transferred to what are known as concentration camps and killed.

§ Many of these camps were death camps where new ways of killing people were introduced.

§ People were burnt in gas chambers.

§ There were mass massacres Prisoners were made to dig mass graves, were shot and then buried in those graves.

§ The kinds of tortures & brutalities that the fascists, particularly German Nazis, perpetrated had no precedent nor did the mass scale on which they were practiced.

§ Many of these brutalities came fully to light when Germany lost the war, after the discovery of places of mass murders and from the descriptions of those in the concentration camps who had survived.

§ The atrocities committed by the Japanese in countries occupied by them were no less brutal. Inhuman medical experiments were conducted by Japanese on human beings.

Use of Atom Bomb By USA

The atom bomb was first devised in the United States during the Second World War. The project to develop the bomb was taken up when a number of scientists, suspecting that the Nazi Germany was developing the atom bomb, approached the US government. The atom bomb was first tested in July 1945. By then, Germany had already surrendered.

§ Many of those who had helped in its development appealed to the US government not to use it against Japan against whom the war was still continuing.

§ They also warned of the danger of starting a race in the production of atomic weapons if the atom bomb was used against Japan.

§ However, the government of the United States used the atom bombs against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

§ The government of the United States justified the use of the atom bomb on the ground that it brought the Second World War immediately to a close and thus helped to save human lives which would have been lost if the war had continued.

After the defeat of Germany and the ending of the war in Europe, Japan was not in a position to continue the war and her capitulation was a matter of days. Some scholars hold the view that main reason for using the atom bomb was to establish the superiority of USA in the world after the war as at that time it alone possessed these weapons.

World War Conferences & Formation of UN

During the war, major Allied nations held many conferences & issued declarations stating the principles which would

§ Form the bases of peace & would not seek any territory

§ Supported the right of every people to have the form of government of their choice

§ All the Chinese territories taken by Japan would be restored

In 1943, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin, leaders of Britain, USA & Soviet Union met at Teheran. They declared their resolve to ―banish the scourge and terror of war and to create a world in which all peoples may live free lives untouched by tyranny & according to their varying desires & their own consciences―.

Yalta Conference

§ Early in 1945 when Germany was on the verge of defeat, heads of the three big nations met at Yalta in Soviet Union.

§ Here they agreed on a number of issues such as how to deal with Germany & non-German territories which had been liberated from Germany.

§ Yalta Conference also took the decision to set up a new organisation to replace the League of Nations.

The Potsdam Conference

§ Another major conference of the heads of government of Britain, United States & Soviet Union was held at Potsdam (near Berlin) in 1945.

§ The declaration issued by this conference mentioned the main aims of the Allies with regard to Germany which had already surrendered.

§ Germany had been partitioned into four zones, each under the control of Britain, France, the United States and the Soviet Union.

§ Declaration stated that the aim of Allied occupation of Germany was to bring about complete disarmament of Germany, to destroy the Nazi Party and to prepare conditions for the creation of a democratic Germany.

§ It was also decided to set up an international tribunal to bring to trial persons who had committed crimes against humanity.

§ Decisions were also taken regarding the border between Poland and Germany, and the transfer of the northern part of East Prussia to the Soviet Union and the southern part to Poland.

Formation of United Nations Organization

§ Formation of UN Was based on the principle of ―the sovereign equality of all peace loving states‖

§ Purposes of United Nations Organization were to maintain international peace and security

§ To develop friendly relations among nations and to achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character

§ It was realized that unless all the permanent members of the Security Council, who were at that time the biggest powers, were agreed, no course of action for the maintenance of peace and security could be effective.

§ Hence it was provided that any decision of the Security Council must have the support of all five permanent members.

§ The setting up of the United Nations was one of the most important consequences of the Second World War.

Events that led to UN formation

§ In 1941 Britain and US declared that they would not seek any territory.

§ 1942: UN Declaration. It stated that Chinese territory acquired by Japan would be restored to her.

§ 1943 Churchill, Roosevelt & Stalin met at Tehran & declared their resolve to ―banish the scourge and terror of war‖

§ Yalta Conference took the decision of formation of UN

§ San Francisco 1945: It was attended by 50 nations. The conference adopted the UN Charter

§ Potsdam Conference

§ UN came into existence in October 1945. It succeeded League of Nations.

Performance of UN

Success of UN

§ It provides a platform where all the countries of the world come together & discuss the issues.

§ Without such a forum there would be various blocks working according to its own agenda which is likely to spawn more crisis and would push the planet towards another world war scenario.

§ Although it has not prevented wars but is able to bring war to end quickly. UN peace keeping force has done exemplary work in undertaking humanitarian efforts.

§ Even a small nation consisting of few islands like Kiribati, Nauru can make its voice heard.

§ It has done commendable work in addressing the human rights, social and gender related issues by Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

§ Stimulate international cooperation on economic, social and technical matters.

Criticisms of UN

§ Lack of a permanent UN army: It has to rely on member states to provide troops. Many a times the warring parties have refused to stop the war. In such situations UN has found itself helpless e.g. Russian refusal to withdraw troops from Afghanistan (1980)

§ Indecisions: Sometimes UN has taken too long a time to response to crisis making its intervention meaningless. e.g Vietnam war. This has also led to member states relying more on regional organisations like NATO.

§ Problem of diverse opinions: It has become near impossible except for social issues to arrive at a consensus. It‘s difficult to reconcile the interests of developing, developed and underdeveloped countries all at once.

§ Duplication of work: On paper there is much overlapping of work between WHO, FAO, UNICEF and UNESCO. Due to lack of convergence of schemes there is wastage of resources.

§ Shortage of funds: Especially in the wake of Global financial meltdown of 2008 & Eurozone crisis. Many developed countries have gone on austerity measures have cut down funding.

Europe After Second World War

Many countries in Europe had been liberated from German occupation by Soviet armies. These countries were Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria & Czechoslovakia. The Communist parties & other antifascist parties in these countries had played an important role in the struggle against German occupation of these countries. By 1948, the governments of all these countries were dominated by the Communist parties.

§ Up to the Second World War, the only country in Europe, & world, ruled by a Communist party was the Soviet Union. Now a large number of European countries were ruled by Communist parties.

§ In these countries, other political parties were either not allowed to exist or had only a nominal presence.

§ The political power was exclusively in the hands of the Communist parties.

§ The presence of Soviet troops in these countries ensured the continuance of the Communist parties‘ monopoly of power.

§ Within the Communist parties themselves, differences over policies were not allowed & the power within, the Communist parties became concentrated in a few hands.

Sometimes these countries were branded as ‗satellites‘ of the Soviet Union. The Communist party of Yugoslavia was the only ruling Communist Party which refused to be dominated by the Soviet Union. But at the same time, the government of Yugoslavia did not allow other political parties to function.

Partition of Germany

The four powers – Britain, France, United States & Soviet Union, which were in occupation of four different zones of Germany followed different policies in dealing with the social, economic & political problems in their respective zones.

§ In British, French and American zones, the economic development continued on capitalist lines.

§ In 1948, Brain, France & United States decided to merge the three zones under their control and form a separate government there.

§ In September 1949 these zones were united & a separate state in West Germany called the Federal Republic of Germany with its capital at Bonn came into being.

§ In East Germany which was under Soviet occupation, Lands were distributed among peasants and all the major industries were taken over from private hands and made the property of the state.

§ In October 1949, the Soviet zone became a separate state called the German Democratic Republic.

§ Thus Germany came to be divided into two states, each following its own pattern of social, economic and political development.

§ The division of Germany had been a source of tension in Europe and a major factor in the Cold War.

§ East Berlin was the capital of East Germany (German Democratic Republic) while West Berlin which was located within the GDR territory was treated as a part of West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany).

§ In 1961, the GDR authorities built a wall between East and West Berlin to prevent East Germans from going away to West Berlin.

§ The building of the wall became a further source of tension in Europe.

§ The process of ending communist rule in GDR and of the reunification of Germany began in 1989 when the Berlin Wall was opened and political parties which were outside the control of the communist party (called Socialist Unity Party) were allowed to function.

§ In early 1990 elections were held & a new government came to power. By 1990, the division of Germany was ended.

Collapse of Soviet Union

Collapse of Soviet Union also resulted in collapsing of the communist regimes in USSR & in other countries of Europe.

§ In 1956, three years after the death of Stalin, the Communist Party of Soviet Union denounced the excesses and crimes committed by Stalin.

§ From 1985, many important reforms began to be introduced in the political system of Soviet Union with a view to promoting political democracy like free & open discussion on every issue & lifting of curbs on the freedom of thought and expression.

§ The hold of the Communist Party over the political life of the country was loosened and other political parties were allowed to function.

Gorbachev‘s Rise 1985 & Fall of USSR

Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of Soviet union in 1985 & instituted capitalistic reforms known as perestroika; & a limited expansion of political freedom known as glasnost. He let Berlin wall fall in 1989 and unite Germany in 1990.

§ There was a demand for greater autonomy by the republics which constituted the Soviet Union. Some republics wanted to become independent.

§ In August 1991, there was an attempt to stage a coup by some leaders of the Communist Party.

§ Though the coup collapsed, the Soviet Union began to break up. Many republics declared their independence.

§ On 25 December 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev, who was the President of the Soviet Union during this period & had initiated the reforms mentioned earlier, resigned and the Soviet Union formally ceased to exist.

§ In place of Soviet Union, emerged 15 independent republics.

§ Equally important changes took place in those countries of Europe which were ruled by communist parties.

§ There had been outbursts of resentment in some of these countries against Soviet control & against the Soviet supported communist governments & there were occasions when Soviet troops were used to suppress the unrest in these countries.

§ The changes in the Soviet Union affected these countries directly.

§ By 1989, Soviet control over them came to an end.

§ The monopoly of political power enjoyed by the communist parties in these countries was ended.

§ There were free elections & new governments were formed.

§ It is notable that these far reaching changes took place in most countries without the use of violence.

The Warsaw Pact, the military alliance which was headed by the Soviet Union and of which the communist ruled states of Europe were members, was dissolved in 1991.

Breaking up of the Nations after WW 2

§ Germany → East and West, later combined

§ Fall of USSR leads to 15 independent republics

Europe

§ Czechoslovakia → Czech Republic + Slovak Republic

§

Yugoslavia → Serbia and Montenegro + Croatia + Macedonia + Slovenia

§ + Bosnia-H

Asia

§ India + Pakistan (+ later Bangladesh)

§ Indochina → Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia

§

Korea – North + South, never combined

§ China -Taiwan

§ Israel-Palestine

Cold War Post World War 2

A major feature after the end of the Second World War was the antagonism between United States & Soviet Union & the armed confrontation between the military blocs headed by them for almost four decades.

§ Since the end of the First World War, the United States had emerged as the strongest power in the world. After the Second World War, her power had grown still more compared with the European powers who dominated the world for centuries.

§ This was both in spheres of economic & military strength. After US acquired atom bomb, its power further strengthened.

§ Next to the United States the mightiest power in the world after the Second World War was Soviet Union. It had suffered more than any other country in the war. However, in spite of these losses, her power and prestige had increased.

During the war, Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union had together fought against the fascist countries. Many declarations issued during the war which aroused hopes of peace all over the world.

§ However, the war was hardly over when conflicts and tensions began to emerge between Britain and the United States on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other.

§ The relations between them began to deteriorate and came to be characterized by what has been called the Cold War.

§ Gradually, the Cold War became more intense and the world was divided into two major blocs — the United States and West European countries forming one bloc and the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe forming the other.

Causes of Cold War

§ The most important reason for the ‗outbreak‘ of the Cold War was the Western countries‘ fear of communism.

§ Increase in the might of the Soviet Union, emergence of governments ruled by communist parties in Eastern and Central Europe and the growing strength of communist parties in many parts of the world, alarmed the governments of the United States, Britain and other West European countries.

§ In 1949, the victory of the Communist Party of China in the civil war which had been raging there for about two decades added to the alarm.

§ United States openly declared that her policy was to prevent the spread of communism.

§ One of the objectives of the massive economic aid that the United States gave to West European countries was also to ‗contain‘ communism

§ United States began to look upon every development in the world from this standpoint, whether it promoted or helped in checking communism.

§ Britain and West European countries became aligned with the United States and began to follow a policy mainly aimed at curbing the growth of communism.

Impact of Cold War on Freedom Movements

§ This had many adverse consequences for democracy, and freedom movements in the colonies.

§ The freedom movements in many countries began to be considered unsympathetically by countries which were not themselves colonial powers but were aligned to the colonial powers.

§ For example, United States supported France in suppressing the freedom movement in Indo China.

§ Countries which wanted to pursue an independent policy and promote relations with the Soviet Union were looked upon with suspicion.

§ All these factors made the international situation tense as in some areas it resulted in wars and in many other areas it led to prolonging of conflicts.

§ The growing tension in the world was worsened by the setting up of military blocs.

Military Blocs by USA

§ In 1949, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed for defense against the Soviet Union. A NATO army was created which established its bases in many countries of Europe

§ In 1954 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was setup with United States, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, the Philippines and Pakistan as members.

§ In 1955 the Baghdad Pact signed. It consisted of Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan & Iran. United States established its military bases all over the world for use against what it considered the danger of communist aggression.

§ When there was a revolution in Iraq in 1958, that country withdrew from Baghdad Pact which had been named after capital of Iraq, the name of Baghdad Pact was then changed to the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)

Warsaw Pact

As against these Western & Western sponsored alliances, the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Europe – Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria and the German Democratic Republic formed the Warsaw Pact.

§ Under this pact, the Soviet Union stationed her troops in these countries.

§ However, Soviet Union & other members of the Warsaw Pact did not have any military bases in other parts of the world.

§ The Soviet Union had treaties of friendship and mutual assistance with China.

These alliances and the military bases came to be looked upon by countries, which were not members of the alliances, as a danger to peace and to their independence. Most of the countries of Asia and Africa which had won their freedom refused to join these alliances.

Arms Race During Cold War

There was the race for deadlier weapons of destruction. For about four years after the Second World War, only the United States possessed atomic weapons. In 1949, Soviet Union tested her first atom bomb.

§ A few years later nuclear weapons which were thousands of times more destructive than the atom bombs used against Japan, were developed.

§ The testing alone of these bombs created serious hazards to life.

§ Many movements were launched in all parts of the world to demand a ban on the testing and manufacture of nuclear weapons.

§ Most of the leading scientists such as Einstein & Linus Pauling also supported this demand.

However, the arsenals of nuclear weapons in the world went on increasing. There are so many nuclear weapons in the world today that the world can be destroyed many times over. Along with the nuclear weapons and many other kinds of weaponry, new bombers, submarines and missiles have been developed which can carry these weapons over thousands of kilometers.

Armed Tension during Cold War

Cuban Missile Crisis

§ Soviets deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, in striking range of Florida.

§ President Kennedy responded with a naval blockade of Cuba & two sides were at the brink of war.

§ After 13 days standoff, Soviets removed the missiles.

Vietnam War (1960s – 1975)

§ In 1965, US sent troops to aid south Vietnam in its war against communist north Vietnam, which was supported by Soviets & Chinese.

§ By the time US troops left in 1973, 58k Americans had died. War ended in 1975 with communist forces overrunning the south.

Prague spring 1968

§ Leaders of Czechoslovakia‘s communist party attempted to institute reforms including loosening control over media & introducing multiparty democracy.

§ Soviet troops invaded & the reforms were halted.

Afghan invasion 1979

§ Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in support of marxist government, which war battling insurgents known as mujaheddin (aided by US & Pakistan).

§ After 10 years of wars soviet troops retreated in 1989.

Star Wars

§ The United States launched a programme of developing new and even more deadly weapons, popularly known as the Star Wars.

§ These weapons would have meant taking the conflict into outer space and launching attacks from there.

§ However, the world situation began to improve after the mid 1980s and by the end of the 1980s it could be said with much certainty that the era of Cold War had came to an end.

Role of Non Aligned Movement During Cold War

Many newly independent nations of Asia and Africa as well as many nations in other continents did not like the military blocs. They began to follow a policy of nonalignment with any military bloc. Their emergence played a very important role in reducing the intensity of the Cold War and in creating an atmosphere of peace.

§ Most of the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa refused to join the Cold War.

§ They considered the formation of military blocs as a serious danger to peace and to their independence.

§ These countries were faced with the enormous task of social and economic reconstruction which could be done only in a world free from war & tension.

§ The extension of military alliances and the setting up of foreign bases were considered by most Asian countries as a threat to their Independence and a source of tension. Hence they opposed these alliances.

Non-Aligned nations of Asia & Africa, therefore, were in the forefront of the struggle for the liquidation of colonialism.Nonalignment has been a policy aiming at the strengthening of

independence, ending of colonialism & promoting world peace.It was not merely a policy of non involvement with military blocs but a policy for creating a better world.

Asian Countries Independence

The period after second World War saw the emergence of most countries of Asia & Africa as independent nations. Generally, the colonial powers were not willing to give up their hold on the colonies and left only when they found that it was not possible to maintain their rule any more.

§ During the Second World War, many imperialist countries had been ousted from their colonies, but after the war they tried to re-establish their rule.

§ For some time they succeeded in doing so but were ultimately forced to withdraw.

§ The achievement of independence was the result primarily of the struggles of the peoples of the colonies.

§ However, the changes in the international climate which followed Second World War helped the peoples struggling for independence.

§ Imperialism as a whole had been weakened as a result of the war. Economies of many imperialist countries had suffered.

§ Forces within the imperialist countries which were friendly with the peoples struggling for independence also had grown powerful.

§ Freedom & democracy were the major aims for which the Allies had fought against the fascist countries and these aims had been made the basis for arousing peoples all over the world against fascism. The fulfilment of these aims could no longer be confined only to Europe

§ Another major international factor which facilitated the end of imperialism was the emergence of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries as a major force.

§ These countries were inimical to imperialism and often gave aid and support to the freedom movements in the colonies.

§ At the international forums, particularly at the United Nations, the cause of the independence of colonies began to gain popularity. The international opinion was clearly against the continuation of imperialism.

An important role in the achievement of independence by the countries of Asia and Africa was played by the unity which freedom movements in various countries achieved. Freedom movement in one country supported the freedom movements in other countries. The role of countries which had achieved their independence was very crucial in this regard. These countries supported the cause of those peoples who were still under colonial rule at the United Nations & international forums.

Independence of Asian Nations

India

§ The independence of India was of great importance in the history of freedom movements in Asia and Africa.

§ India had, however, been partitioned & along with it, another independent state, Pakistan, also came into being.

§ Policies pursued by the government of independent India under the leadership its first Prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, helped in strengthening the freedom movements in other countries.

Burma

§ Burma achieved its independence from Britain a few months after India became independent.

§ In 1944, the Antifascist People‘s Freedom League had been formed in Burma.

§ Its aim was to resist the Japanese invasion of Burma and to win independence for Burma.

§ After the war, the British tried to restore their rule over Burma.

§ This led to the intensification of the movement for freedom.

§ In the course of struggle, many leaders of the Burmese freedom movement were assassinated.

§ However, Britain was forced to agree to the demand for freedom and Burma became independent on 4 January 1948.

Indonesia

§ After the defeat of Japan, Sukarno, one of the pioneers of the freedom movement in Indonesia, proclaimed independence of Indonesia.

§ However, soon after the British troops landed there in order to help the Dutch to restore their rule.

§ The government of independent Indonesia resisted the attempt to reestablish colonial rule.

§ There were demands in many countries of the world to put an end to the war which had been started in Indonesia to restore the Dutch rule.

§ In Asian countries, the reaction was particularly intense. After India became free, it convened a conference of Asian nations in support of Indonesia‘s independence.

§ The conference met in New Delhi in January 1949 and called for the complete independence of Indonesia.

§ The resistance of the Indonesian people & mounting pressure of world opinion and Asian countries compelled Holland to set the leaders of Indonesian people free.

§ On 2 November 1949, Holland recognized the independence of Indonesia.

China

Kuomintang & Communist Party of China united under the leadership of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen for complete independence and unification of China. This unity was broken after the death of Sun Yat-Sen and a civil war started in China between the Kuomintang under the leadership of Chiang Kai-Shek & Communist Party of China, whose most important leader was Mao Zedong.

§ The Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-Shek was a party which mainly represented the interests of capitalists and landlords.

§ The Communist Party, on the other hand, was a party of workers and peasants.

§ In areas under Communist Party‘s control, the estates of landlords had been expropriated & the land distributed among the peasants.

§ Because of the policies pursued by the Communist Party, it gradually won over millions of Chinese people to its side.

Chinese Civil War

Communist Party also organized a huge army called the People’s Liberation Army. After the defeat of Japan & driving out of the Japanese forces from China, the civil war again broke out.

§ The government of the United Stated gave massive aid to Chiang KaiShek, but by 1949 his armies were completely routed.

§ With the remnants of his troops, Chiang KaiShek went to Taiwan (Formosa), an island which had been occupied by Japan after she had defeated China in 1895.

§ On 1st October 1949, the People‘s Republic of China was proclaimed & Communist Party of China under the leadership of Mao Zedong Came to power.

§ The victory of the Communist revolution in China was a world shaking event. The most populous country in the world had come under communist rule.

§ Besides the socialist countries of Europe, there were now two mighty powers in the world

—the Soviet Union and China —which were ruled by communist parties.

§ Imperialism was further weakened in Asia as a result of the Chinese revolution.

Sri Lanka, Thailand, Philippines and Malaysia

Sri Lanka Within a few months of, India‘s independence, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) also

became free in

Thailand Thailand had been occupied by Japan and after the defeat of Japan

became independen

Philippines

During the war, Japan had driven out the American forces from the

Philippines. In independence of the Philippines.

Malaysia In Malaya British rule had been reestablished after the war. In 1957,

Malaya (now Mal

Korean War and Vietnam Partition

Korean War

Korea had come under Japanese rule in 1910. After Japan‘s defeat in the Second World War, she was divided into two zones, the northern zone under Soviet occupation and the southern zone under American occupation, to bring about the surrender of Japanese troops.

§ The aim was to make Korea an independent state.

§ However, as in the case of Germany in Europe, two different governments in Korea were formed in 1948.

North Democratic People‘s Republic of Korea (North Korea) under the leadership

of Korean Comm

South The Republic of Korea (South Korea) by a group of parties under the

leadership of Syngman

§ Rhee was an anticommunist and wanted an alliance with Chiang KaiShek to prevent the spread of communism.

§ Both the states organized their armies and there were frequent clashes between them.

§ In June 1950 war broke out between North and South Korea. Chinese revolution had already taken place & United States feared further expansion of communism in this area.

§ The United States sent troops to support South Korea in the war.

§ These troops fought as the troops of the United Nations because the Security Council of the United Nations had passed a resolution condemning North Korea & asked members of the United Nations to aid South Korea.

After the entry of the American forces in the war, the Chinese forces also entered the war and the situation took a very serious turn. There was a real danger of another world war breaking out, as by this time Soviet Union also had acquired atomic bombs. However, though the war in Korea raged for three years, it did not turn into a world war. The armistice was signed in 1953 – Korea remained divided into two separate states.

Vietnam Partition

Vietnam along with Laos & Cambodia comprised IndoChina which had come under French colonial rule. After the French government surrendered to Germany, many parts of IndoChina were occupied by Japan.

§ The movement for the freedom of IndoChina from French rule had started many years earlier.

§ The greatest leader of the people of Vietnam was Ho ChiMinh.

§ He was engaged in organizing the communist and the nationalist movements in Vietnam since soon after the end of the First World War.

§ The Vietnamese people under Ho ChiMinh‘ s leadership resisted the Japanese occupation and organized a people‘s army called the Viet Minh.

§ By the time the Second World War ended, the Viet Minh controlled a large part of Vietnam.

§ In August 1945, Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed with Ho ChiMinh as President.

By 1946 French troops arrived with the aim of restoring French rule & started fighting against the Viet Minh. They also set up a government with Bao Dal, who had headed the puppet government under Japan earlier, as the ruler.

§ The war between the Viet Minh and France continued for eight years.

§ In 1954, the French forces suffered a severe blow at the fortress of Dien-Bien-Phu.

§ The debacle at Dien-Bien-Phu compelled the French government to start negotiations with the government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

In July 1954 an international conference was held at Geneva. It was agreed to partition Vietnam temporarily into North & South Vietnam & to hold elections all over Vietnam within two years to unify the country under a single government. Cambodia and Laos, the other two countries of Indo-China were made independent.

Vietnam War

§ With the partition of Vietnam, another phase in the freedom movement in Vietnam began.

§ The government which was established in South Vietnam, with the support of the United States, refused to abide by the decisions of the Geneva conference with regard to the holding of elections and the unification of Vietnam.

§ It came to be increasingly regarded as being under the control of the United States which was opposed to the unification of Vietnam under the leader ship of the communist party.

§ In early 1960s, uprisings broke out in South Vietnam against the government there & were followed by massive military intervention of the United States in Vietnam.

§ The war continued for a number of years.

§ Incalculable damage was done to Vietnam as a result of the heavy bombings by American forces.

§ American troops also used weapons of bacteriological warfare.

§ United States was almost completely isolated in the world over the war in Vietnam.

§ The opposition to the war grew in the United States itself on an unprecedented scale.

§ Thousands of Americans refused to be drafted in the U.S. army and many American soldiers deserted.

§ However, the US government continued the war even though it was clear that she could not win it.

§ Early in 1975, the war took a decisive turn.

§ Armies of North Vietnam & of National Liberation Front of South Vietnam swept across the country routing the American supported troops of the government of South Vietnam.

By 30 April 1975, all the American troops had withdrawn & North & South Vietnam were formally united as one country in 1976. The city of Saigon was renamed Ho Chi-Minh City after the great leader of the Vietnamese people who had died a few years earlier in 1969.

Cambodia: Khmer Rouge

The war in Vietnam had also spread to Cambodia. In 1970, the government was overthrown and a puppet government was installed there.

§ The troops of the USA and South Vietnam carried the war to Cambodia on the ground that the Vietnamese were receiving their supplies from bases in Cambodia.

§ By the time the United States withdrew from the war in 1975, a party which called itself Khmer Rouge had taken control of Cambodia under the leadership of Pol Pot.

§ The government of Pol Pot established a regime of terror in Cambodia and started following a policy of genocide against its own people.

§ In 1979, Pol Pot‘s government was overthrown with the help of Vietnamese troops.

§ However, the war in Cambodia continued as the Khmer Rouge still had some areas under its control inside the country.

§ It also operated from across the border with Thailand.

Peace was restored in Cambodia recently. United Nations brought the various warring factions together & an agreement was signed under the auspices of the United Nations. The Vietnamese troops were withdrawn from Cambodia. In 1993, elections were held and a coalition government was formed. Khmer Rouge, however, remained outside the government and its troops continued their armed attacks in some parts of the country.

West Asia, Suez Crisis, Iran – Iraq War, Gulf War

Syria and Lebanon

§ As in other parts of Asia, there was an upsurge for freedom in West Asia also immediately after the Second World War.

§ After the war, the French tried to restore their authority over Syria and Lebanon but, in the face of opposition from the people of these countries & the world opinion, they were forced to withdraw.

§ Both Syria & Lebanon became independent by the end of 1946.

There was an upsurge in all the Arab countries at this time & 1950s saw their emergence as independent nations. The period saw the growing power of Arab nationalism which led to efforts by the Arab people and governments to come together to face and solve common problems. The Arab League was formed comprising all the Arab states.

Formation of Israel

§ Palestine had become a British mandate in 1919. The British troops again occupied the country in 1945.

§ Large influx of Jews took place in Palestine after they faced extermination under the hands of Hitler in Germany.

§ Palestine was inhabited by Arabs and Jews. The persecution which the Jews in Europe had suffered for centuries had won them sympathy and support of the world.

§ British in Palestine had permitted some Jews from outside Palestine to settle there.

A movement called the Zionist movement claimed that Palestine was the homeland of all the Jews, wherever they may be living, & should be restored to them. This complicated the freedom movement in Palestine, majority of whose inhabitants were Arabs.

§ In 1947 the United Nations passed a resolution according to which Palestine was to be divided into an Arab state and a Jewish state.

§ However, in 1948, the British withdrew their troops from Palestine and soon after the state of Israel was proclaimed.

§ Arab states refused to recognise Israel. This led to a war between the Arab states and Israel.

§ Arab world united under the leadership of Egypt and its dynamic leader Colonel Nasserand they declared war against Israel. Arabs were defeated by Israel.

Suez Crisis of 1956

§ By treaty of Constantinople in 1889 Suez Canal was considered as part of Egypt.

§ The larger shares of this canal were in the hands of US, Britain, France etc. and in return for transport and communication these countries were providing financial aid to Egypt which was used in projects like Aswan Dam.

§ Due to leadership of Egypt against Israel, Britain ended financial help and in such circumstances Egypt nationalised Suez Canal which led to the Suez crisis of 1956.

§ Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula. The attacks were widely condemned. US refused to support Britain.

§ For the first time USSR and US agreed on something. They demanded an immediate ceasefire.

§ With the pressure building up, Britain, France and Israel decided to withdraw.

6 Days War (1967)

§ Arab states joined hand to destroy Israel.

§ The lead was taken by Iraq, Syria and Egypt.

§ They were encouraged in this effort by Russians (because Israel was supported by Americans).

§ The Israeli decided that the best policy is to launch early attack than wait to be defeated.They captured

§ Sinai peninsula and Gaza strip from Egypt

§ West Bank from Jordan

§ Golan Heights from Syria

Israel turned these areas into buffer zones to counter the attacks of Arab nations. It was a complete humiliation for Arab states. The Russians had been of no help.

Iran – Iraq War

Iraq was ruled by Saddam Hussein. Iran became republic in 1979 under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini & Shiite supporters.

§ The population of Iraq was mainly Sunniwith large Shia minority.

§ Saddam government was afraid that revolutions in Iran might spill over to his country.

§ He was overconfident of his military strength and considered Iranian forces to be weak and therefore launched an attack and expected quick victory.

§ On paper Iraqi forces were strong but Iranian fought with fanatical determination.

§ Iran got weapons from China and North Korea.

Result

§ Stability of the entire region was threatened.

§ Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Kuwait gave support to Iraq but Syria, Libya, Algeria were critical of Iraq.

§ Threatened the energy supplies to the West.

§ Neither side neither achieved its objectives nor was war ended.

Gulf War (1990)

§ Saddam Hussein launched another offensive against Kuwait (1990) due to -

§ Wealth of Kuwait since he was short of cash after the war with Iran.

§ He claimed that Kuwait was part of Iraq.

§ He had the strongest army in the region.

§ He did not hope America and European powers to act against him as they had supplied him weapons during the Iran war.

§ Saddam had miscalculated. US pushed for military actions and UN imposed trade sanctions.

§ Saudi Arabia, Syria & Egypt got nervous about Iraq‘s nefarious motives & decided to support international efforts.

§ Operation Desert Storm was launched against Iraq.

§ Within 4 days Kuwait was liberated and Baghdad was bombed.

§ Saddam was allowed to remain in power and was left with considerable arms and troops because West considered his survival to be best for the stability of the region.

Result

§ Iraq was devastated.

§ Kurds revolted in Iraq but no one interfered this time as Russia, Syria and Turkey had Kurds minority of their own and did not want the revolt to spread.

The primary concern was not with the international justice and moral questions of right and wrong but with their own self interest. They only took actions when they threatened their oil supplies

Independence of African countries Egypt

§ Egypt was a British mandate after WW1. It had been declared independent in 1922 but British troop remained.

§ After WW2 the demand for withdrawal of British troops gained momentum.

§ There were clashes between the two & Egyptians suffered heavy casualties.

§ There was a discontent against the king who had been installed by the British.

§ There was a revolution in 1952 when the Egyptian army under the leadership of Lt Colonel Gamal Nasser overthrew the monarchy and declared Egypt a republic.

§ The British troops ultimately were withdrawn in 1956.

§ Under Nasser the economic reconstruction of Egypt began.

§ It refused to align with US and began to receive military and economic aid from Soviet Union.

§ Nasser nationalised Suez Canal in 1956. This prompted a combined attack from Britain, Israel and France.

§ This attack was widely condemned. Soviet Union sent a stern warning to Britain.

§ The worldwide condemnation forced them to withdraw their forces.

§ The war raised to prestige of Asian and African countries and also that of Soviet Union.

§ It emerged as a saviour and friend of new independent countries

Libya

§ Libya had come under Italian rule in 1911.

§ During WW2 some of the most ferocious battle between Germany and Britain were fought in Libya.

§ At the end of the war the country was occupied by Britain and France.

§ In 1951 Libya became independent with monarchical form of government.

§ During 1960 it became one of the largest oil producing countries of the world.

§ king did not permit any opposition to the rule. It led to gross inequality in the society.

§ In 1969 a group of army officers captured power and abolished monarchy.

§ US built one of its strongest air bases on Libyan soil.

Algeria

§ Algeria had been captured by France as early as 1830.

§ In 1954 the nationalist organisation of the people of Algeria called National Liberation Front gave a call for armed struggle against French Rule.

§ By 1958, the Algerian nationalists had organised a large army of their own and proclaimed the formation of a govt of the republic of Algeria.

§ The situation in Algeria had serious consequences inside France as well.

§ In 1958, General Charles de Gaulle became the President of France.

§ He conceded the right of the Algerian people to self determination.

§ This policy was opposed by some sections of the French army in Algeria who revolted against De Gaulle and attempts to assassinate him were made.

§ In July 1962 a referendum was held in Algeria and people unanimously voted for independence.

Ghana

§ It was under British occupation and was called Gold Coast.

§ The most prominent leader was Kwame Nkrumah who in 1949 organised the Convention People‘s Party.

§ A strong trade union movement had also emerged in Gold Coast.

§ They demanded independence but were arrested.

§ In the elections that followed the CPC won a resounding majority and thus the British were compelled to initiate constitutional reforms and finally British agreed to its independence in 1952.

§ The country was renamed as Ghana after the name of the old West African kingdom.

Guinea

§ It was a French colony. In 1958 while embroiled in war in Algeria, France held a referendum in her colonies.

§ The people of Guinea voted for complete independence and Guinea was proclaimed a republic in 1958.

§ The achievement of independence by Ghana and Guinea accelerated the pace of achievement of independence by other nations.

§ The promotion of the cause of African freedom was a major objective of India‘s foreign policy.

§ 1960 is regarded as the African year. 17 countriesgained their independence.

§ Organisation of African Unity was formed in 1963

Kenya

§ The freedom movement was led by Jomo Kenyatta, leader of Kenya African Union.

§ In 1952 a revolt by peasants had broken out known as Mau Mau rebellion.

§ It was directed against the seizure of land by the British colonial authorities.

§ Jomo Kenyatta was prisoned in 1953 on the charge of supporting the rebellion.

§ Having failed to suppress the freedom movement, Britain had to give in and Kenya became independent in 1963.

The newly independent countries had to face lots of problems. The evil machinations of imperialist countries were still at work e.g. Belgium with the help of some countries brought about the secession of the rich province of Katanga. By 1975 the Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde became independent.

Namibia

§ It was the last country in Africa to become independent. It was formerly called South West Africa.

§ It was a German colony before WW1.

§ It was handed over to South Africa as ‗mandate‘.

§ South Africa treated her as colony & refused to withdraw despite resolutions of UN.

§ The freedom movement was led by South-West Africa People‘s Organisation which was formed in 1960.

§ It started a war with the help of Guerilla forces to liberate the country.

§ It was made a member of NAM. The NAM + African Govt. + UN played an important role in the success of freedom movement in Namibia. The war came to an end in 1989.

South Africa

§ It was an independent country. It was known as Union of South Afica since 1910 and Republic of South Africa since 1961.

§ The govt. was among the most oppressive regimes in the world in 20th century.

§ It was under the exclusive control of white minorities practicing the worst form of racism.

§ System of apartheidwas established.

§ All people were classified and separated on the basis of race.

§ Separate schools, universities, theater, shopping centres, separate coaches in trains.

§ The teams for sport also were formed on the basis of races.

§ Marriage between different racial groups was a criminal offence.

§ The best lands in the country were under the control of whites.

§ The non whites had no vote and say in the govt.

§ They were denied human rights.

End of Apartheid

§ The ANC organised its own army to fight against the racist regime.

§ In 1960 ANC was banned and most of its leaders were arrested.

§ African National Congress was set up in 1910 and led fight against the regime.

§ SA was isolated. Its cricket team was banned by the ICC.

§ India was the first country in the world to sever relations with SA and extend full support to the people of SA.

§ In 1980s some Western countries imposed sanctions.

§ By the end of 1980s the international isolation of SA regime was complete which resulted in -

§ The ban on ANC was subsquently lifted.

§ Nelson Mandela who had been in jail for 27 years was released.

§ Apartheid laws were abolished.

§ The process of framing a new constitution was started. It gave right to vote to all people. Elections were held in 1994 and a new non racist and democratic government came to power. Nelson Mandela was elected the President of the country.