POST INDEPENDENCE

Chapter-1

Post Independence Consolidation & Restructuring of India

COLONIAL LEGACY and ITS FALL OUTS

Colonialism and capitalism led to a complex integration of colonies into world economy in a subservient manner. Indian raw material was cheaply exported and finished goods were expensively imported which also destroyed domestic industries, handicrafts and handlooms. Ruined artisans failed to find alternative employment and crowded agriculture as sharecroppers and laborers. Modern industries that were developed were guided colonial interest and they were also stunted in their growth. They couldn‟t even replace the erstwhile homegrown cottage industries, handlooms and handicrafts. Before 1900, cotton, jute and tea dominated and before 1930s, cement, sugar and paper dominated. Hallmark of backwardness of Indian industry was virtual absence of capital goods and machinery industry and equipment were largely imported. Further, industrial development was highly uneven in spread. Modern industry contributed a meager 8% of national income at the time of independence. Similarly, electricity and banking were also grossly ignored.

v Partition and its aftermath

§ Freedom came with Partition which resulted in large scale communal violence & riots

§ In initial few years of independence India faced daunting challenges concerning national unity & territorial integrity

Kind of challenges

§ To shape a nation uniting all the states with diversified culture, languages & religions into one nation

§ To establish democracy & to develop democratic practices in accordance with the constitution

§ to evolve effective polices for economic development and eradication of poverty

§ Most of irrigated land gone in partition – Food security to feed those hungry mouths

§ To provide shelter & food for refugees from Pakistan

Early challenges

· Early challenges included administrative and physical integration of nation, communal harmony, rehabilitation of refugees migrated from Pakistan, communist insurgency etc.

· Apart from these there were also social challenges like poverty, inequality, casteism etc and economic challenges like poor industrial base, low per capita income and investment, backward agriculture and so on and political challenges like building of a participative representative e democracy.

· Holding election and strengthening of democracy on the basis of universal adult franchise was one of the biggest challenges for such a huge illiterate people.

· First general elections were held in 1951-52 and those above 21 years were eligible for vote.

· Symbols were used for easy identification of candidates. Opposition parties were liberally allowed including Jan Sangh – political front of RSS which was banned just 3 years ago – and CPI which was involve in insurgency just sometimes back.

· Nehru did vigorous campaigning in which he laid stress on voter education and awareness. In some place‟s polls were celebrated like festivals and less than 5% votes were invalid which showed that people had used their rights judiciously.

· More than 40% of eligible women voted which showed their active participation as well. In total, 46% used their voting rights. Congress swept elections with more than 75% seats in Lok Sabha and 68% in states forming government in all of them, but still getting less than 50% voteshare.

· Communists were second largest single party in Lok Sabha. Further, independents and local regional parties garnered almost 27% of voteshare and 71 seats. It is said that it heralded one party domination in India.

· Opposition was small, but many leaders were of high caliber. First democratically ormed communist government was formed in Kerala in 1957. It was however dismissed in 1959 by Nehru which is still criticised.

· Certain negative trends also started like – squabble for tickets, vote bank politics, shifting of loyalities. However, after the successful conduct of first three elections, it became apparent that democracy in India has taken deep roots and it defied the expectation of nay sayers.

· Constitutional framework was now accepted by one and all including communists and communalists. Institution building was also a challenge. Independence of courts and press was carefully nurtured.

· Parliament as institution was also paid full respect by the early leaders and it was used as a platform of debates and discussion to the fullest.

· Despite congress dominance, opposition was strengthened. Nehru and others responded positively to their criticism and suggestions.

· States were allowed to work independently in spirit of federalism and Nehru never coerced them even if there was disagreement over issues like land reforms which were close to his heart.

· Congress rule at both center and states helped in smoothening this process. Similarly army was also insulated from civil adminsitration and politics. Its size was kept under limits and steps were taken to re-inforce secular nature. Another decision was taken with respect to continuance of civil services and especially Indian Civil Services (ICS).

· Nehru was a critic of civil services for their colonial legacy and conservatism. According to him, ICS was „neither Indian, neither civil nor a service‟. While Nehru wanted to replace ICS with another type of administrative machinary which could better respond to needs of new India, Patel felt the doing so will create a great void and discontunity dangerous to unity of country.

· According to him, it was because of their hard work and patriotism that India could be united. They were renamed as Indian Administrative Services, but it is also blamed that we failed to build their character suitable to our needs.

· It is said tht administration has actually deteriorated over the years due to corruption, feudalistic mindset, political nexus, inaccessibility and so on. Another challenge was developing the field of science and technology.

· Nehru was well aware of the role of science and technology in alleviating poverty and backwardness. He himself assumed chairmanship of Indian Council of Scientific Research (ICSR) which guided and financed national laboratories and scientific institutions and opened first national laboratory – National Physical Laboratory – in 1947 itself.

· First five IITs were opened on lines of MIT, USA starting with establishement of IIT Kharagpurin 1952.

· Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1948 with Homi Jehangir Bhabha as its chairman for development of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. First nuclear reactor also went critical in 1956 in Trombay.

· Similarly, in field of space TERLS was established in 1962. However, Indian scientific endeavor also suffered due to hierarchical structure, brain drain and high entry barriers. Perhaps biggest of all challenges was in field of social change.

· India had tacitly declared its socialistic agenda through initiation of land reforms, labor laws, progressive taxation, expansion of education and health, planned economc development and rapid expansion of public sector.

· Untouchability was abolished in constitution and a commissioner for SCs and STs was established.

· Towards upliftment of women, Hindu Code Bill was passed in parliament in form of four separate acts and provided for – right to property and maintenance, raised age of marriage and consent, abolished polygamy and gave them right to divorce.

· However, similar reforms were not introduced in case of Muslim women and neither uniform civil code was introduced.

· Rural upliftment was another big challenge and two major programs were launched in form of Community Developemnt Program (CDP), 1952 and Panchayati Raj, 1959.

· CDP was launched in 55 blocks of 100 villages each and aimed at addressing all aspects of rural life like agriculture, health, education and infrastructure with the help of ocal community.

· It aimed at self-reliance, building capacity and leadership at rural level and augmenting durable rural assets and institutions.

· It was also accompanied by National Extension Services and achieved success in major extensoin work – better seeds, fertilizers, etc.

· It also led to building of basic infrastructure in form of roads, tanks, primary health setups etc. However it was gross failure on its objective of local involvement and instead it raised expectations and governemnt reliance.

· It became highly bureaucratic and BDOs became center piece of it. Major gains were usurped by the rural elites and powerless landless got little benefit out of it.

· Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was appointed to evaluate it and it recommended establishment of a Panchayati Raj framework for decentralisation of developmental administration which happened in form of a 3-tier structure in various states.

· However, like CDP, it too proved dead duck with states showing little enthusiasm and bureacratic showing little willingness to loosen its grip over rural administration.

· Pursuance of independentforeign policy and an ability to raise her voice in international for a was also a challenge for India.

· Concrete shape to such ideas was given in form of „Non-Aligned Movement‟, principled distance from world superpowers and non-involvement in Cold War.It doesn‟t meant indifference to others, but avoidance of only the unreasonable.

· It never came in way of strengthening our relations with the USSR and nor did it came in way of India‟s joining of Commonwealth.

· Niether it meant utopian pacifism as India used force when it realized that it is necessary to do so as in case of 1947, 1965 and 1971 wars.

· It was agreed that developing countries cannot afford to waste precious resources in rivalaries and hence India neiwther joied nor approved regional west supported blocs like Baghdad Pact, SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization), CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) and so on.

· Western thinkers tried to malign Indian approach by caling it as „immoral neutraliity‟, however it was rebuffed by India by stressing that non-alignment meant deciding issues on their merit, shunning of colonialism and fascism, believing in their own strengths, world peace, disarmament and democratization of international relations.

· India supported the cause of colonies and development of newly independent countries.

· Towards peaceful coexistance, Nehru also devised „Panchsheel‟ doctrine influenced from Buddhism which called for mutual respect for each other‟s territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference in each other‟s internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful coexistance.

· Even before independence, „Asia Relations Conference‟ was held in Delhi in March 1947 attended by 20 nations whch set tone for independence of Asian countries.

· Another one was called in 1948 against Dutch (Netherlands or Holland) aggression in Indonesia in an attempt to recolonize it and it resolved that Asian countries will deny shores to Dutch ships.

· Another landmark event was „Bandung Afro Asian Conference‟, 1955 held in Indonesia. It passed a resolution for world peace and dangers of nuclear weapons and it proved a precursor to „Belgrade Non-Alignment Conference‟, 1961 under leadership of Nehru, Naseer of Egypt and Tito of Yugoslavia. India also remained

active member of the international bodies like UN, IMF, World Bank etc and sent its forces actively in international peacekeeping operations.

· Stance of non-alignement also helped in ensuring economic interests of India and it got help from both Western countries and Soviet union. Its military procurement net was also cast widely which shows its balanced approach, reduced excessive dependency on one country and better bargaining.

· It got Hunter and Canberra aircrafts from UK, MI-4 Helicopters and MIG interceptors from Soviet, Toofani aircrafts from France, Jonga jeeps and Nissan trucks from Japan and so on. India also skillfully managed its relations with other countries.

· On one hand through various agreements in 1964-65 Soviet Union became the biggest defense partner, on the other hand, it made US a key ally in bringing Green Revolution.

v Partition: Displacement and Rehabilitation

On 14–15 August 1947, two nation states came into existence – India & Pakistan; due to “two nation theory” advanced by Muslim League. After 3rd June plan of Mountbatten a British jurist Radcliff was invited to fix the problem and to form two boundary commissions one for Bengal and one for Punjab. On 17th August, 1947 he announced his award.

Limitation of this award

§ Justice Radcliff had no prior knowledge about India.

§ He had no specialized knowledge needed for the task also.

§ He had no advisors and experts.

§ 6 week deadline that Radcliff had was also a limitation of this award.

Consequence of Partition

§ Most abrupt, violent and haphazard, tragic transfer of people in human history

§ Brutal killings, atrocities, rapes, on both sides of the border

§ Cities like Lahore, Amritsar, Calcutta got divided into “Communal Zones”

§ Women were killed by their own family members to preserve the „familyhonor‟

§ Partition forced about 80 lakhs people to migrate across the new borders

§ 5 to 10 lakh people were killed in Partition related violence

The broad strategy for national consolidation after 1947 involved

§ Territorial integration

§ Mobilization of political and institutional resources

§ Economic development

§ Adoption of polices to maintain law & order & to promote social justice

v Indian Government Measures

§ Department of rehabilitation was created to Rehabilitate nearly 6 million refugees from Pakistan

§ Hindus and Sikhs who were lucky enough to escape arrived India with little more than the clothes on their skin

§ Various refugee camps were set up for ex. Kurukshetra Camp and Kolwada camp (Bombay)

§ Refugees had to be found permanent homes & productive work – required land for permanent settlement

§ Greatest mass migration‟ in history also resulted in biggest land resettlement operation in the world

§ A massive migration had also taken place the other way, into Pakistan from India. Thus, first place to resettle the refugees was on land vacated by Muslims in the eastern part of the Punjab, which resulted in shortfall of approx. 8 million hectares of land in Punjab.

§ This shortfall was made more acute by the fact that the areas in west of the province had richer soils, & were more abundantly irrigated.

§ Each family of refugee farmers was given 4 hectares, regardless of its holding in Pakistan.

§ Loans were advanced to buy seed & equipment. While cultivation commenced on these temporary plots, applications were invited for permanent allotments.

§ Every false claim was punished, sometimes by a reduction in the land allotted, or in extreme cases by a brief spell of imprisonment; then also officials estimated an overall inflation of about 25 per cent.

§ To collect, collate, verify & act upon the claims a Rehabilitation Secretariat was set up in Jullundur headed by Sardar Tarlok Singh of Indian Civil Service.

§ By 1951, the problem of the rehabilitation of Refuges from West Pakistan had been fully tackled.

The rehabilitation on East took years and it was more difficult because of constant exodus of Hindus from East Bengal continued for years.

v Integration of Princely States

Unifying post partition India & princely states under one administration was perhaps the most important task faced by then political leadership. In colonial India, nearly 40% of the territory was occupied by 565 small & large states ruled by princes who enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy under the system of British Paramountcy.

§ Many of 565 princely states began to dream of an independent state of their own after independence.

§ With great skill and masterful diplomacy & using both persuasion & pressure, Patel succeeded in integrating hundreds of princely states.

§ Most princely states joined Constituent Assembly with wisdom but others like of Junagarh, Kashmir, Manipur and Hyderabad publicly announced their desire to claim an independent status.

Junagarh

§ A small state on the coast of Saurashtra surrounded by Indian Territory

§ Had no link with Pakistan yet Nawab announced accession to Pak

§ But majority of the people (majorly Hindu), desired to join India

§ This led to a violent movement against Nawab along with Indian troops marching into the state

§ A plebiscite was held which favoured joining India

Kashmir

§ Hindu ruler Hari Singh tried to negotiate with India & Pak to have an independent status for his state.

§ Since majority population of the state was Muslim, the Pakistan thought Kashmir „belonged„to them.

§ On 15th August Harisingh offered standstill agreement with both countries which allowed the free movement of people & goods.

§ Pakistan signed the agreement but India didn‟t.

§ Pakistan became impatient & started violating standstill agreement.

§ 24th October Hari Singh demanded military assistance from India.

§ Mountbatten pointed out that under international law India can send its troops only after state signs a formal instrument of accession

§ Thus on 26^th Oct Maharaja signed instrument of accession which got ratified in 1954.

§ On 27th Oct. morning nearly 100 planes airlifted men and weapons to Srinagar.

§ Pakistan army left the main valley region but continue to occupy a large chunk of territory of Gilgit, Baltistan region – Pak occupied Kashmir.

Hyderabad

§ Largest princely state of India which was ruled by Nizam

§ Nizam led to tyrannical ways & aspired to set up a Muslim dominion rather than integration with India

§ He wanted an independent status for Hyderabad & thus entered into negotiation of standstill agreement with India

§ Meanwhile people revolted against Nizam‟s rule, particularly the peasants of Telangana due to his worst oppression measures.

§ Nizam retaliated on popular movement by unleashing a para-military force

§ 150,000 soldiers were mobilized by Nizam to fight against the Indian Union

§ They murdered, maimed, raped and looted, targeting particularly the non-Muslims

§ In Sep 1948, Indian army under operation Polo invaded Hyderabad state & overthrew its Nizam, annexing the state merged it into the Indian Union.

Manipur

§ Indian government was prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions.

§ Maharaja of Manipur signed the instrument of Accession with the Indian government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.

§ Under the pressure of public view, Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948 & thus state became a constitutional monarchy.

§ Manipur was the 1^st part of India to hold an election based on universal adult franchise.

§ Government of India succeeded in pressurizing the Maharaja into signing a Merger Agreement in September 1949, without consulting the popularly elected Legislative Assembly of Manipur.

§ This caused a lot anger and resentment in Manipur, the consequences of which are still being felt.

In return of their surrender of all power and authority, the rulers of major states were given privy purses guaranteed by the constitution. The rulers were allowed succession to the gaddi & retained certain privileges such as keeping their titles, flying their personal flags and gun salutes on ceremonial occasions.

v French & Portuguese Territories

§ After integration of princely states two trouble spots were French settlement and Portuguese settlements.

§ After prolonged negotiation Pondicherry and other French possessions were handed over to India in 1954.

§ Portuguese were not ready to handover their areas.

§ Their NATO allies supported Portugal‟s position and India supported peaceful means.

§ In 1961 a people movement demanded support; Indian troops marched in Goa under Operation Vijay & Portuguese surrendered without any fight.

Tribal Integration

During colonial times money lenders, traders & petty officials invaded the tribal areas and disrupted the tribal‟s traditional way of life. To conserve forests and to facilitate their commercial exploitation, the colonial authorities brought large tracts of forest lands under forest laws which forbade shifting cultivation & put severe restrictions on the tribals use of forest and their access to forest products.

§ Loss of land, indebtness

§ Exploitation by middlemen

§ Denial of access to forests & forest products

§ Oppression & extortion by policemen, forest officials and other government officials

All this led to a series of tribal uprisings in the 19^th & 20^th centuries, e.g. Santhal & Munda rebellion

Tribal Integration Post Independence

Tribal integration was an extremely difficult task due to –

§ Diverse dwelling conditions

§ Different cultures & tradition

§ Varied languages

§ Spread all over India

§ Resided mostly in hills & forest areas in colonial India

§ Lived in isolation

§ Different habits and ways of life with their non-tribal neighbours

Their greatest concentration was found at Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, NE India, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat & Rajasthan. Except North-East, they constitute minorities in their home states.

India Tribal Policy

Nehru stood for economic & social development of tribal people in multifarious ways, especially in the fields of modern medical facilities communications, agriculture and education. There were certain broad guidelines laid down by Nehru, with the help of V Elwin, which was called as “Tribal Panchsheel”. They are:

§ People should develop along the line of their own genius – avoid imposing anything on them

§ Try to encourage in every way their own traditional arts and culture

§ Tribals rights to land and forest should be respected

§ Technical experts needed for development but avoid introducing too many outsiders into tribal territory.

§ Judge results not by statistics or amount of money spent, but by the quality of human character involved.

§ Should not over administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes

In spite of the constitutional safeguards and the efforts of central & state governments, the tribals progress and welfare has been very slow. Except North East, the tribals continue to be poor, indebted, landless and often unemployed. Problem lies in weak execution of even well intentioned measures.

Reasons for dismal performance of Tribal Policy

§ Quite often the funds allocated for tribal welfare are not spent or are spent without corresponding results and sometimes funds are even misappropriated.

§ Administrative personnel are either ill trained or prejudiced against tribals.

§ Denial of justice, often because of their unfamiliarity with the laws & the legal system.

§ Violation of strict land transfer laws to tribals, leading to alienation of land & eviction of tribals.

§ Rapid extension of mines & industries has worsened their conditions in many areas.

§ The progress of education among the tribal people has been disappointingly slow.

§ Exploitations from the forest officials and unsympathetic attitude of officials.

Positive Development happened due to state‟s Initiative

§ Legislation to protect tribal rights & interests

§ Activities of the tribal welfare departments

§ Panchayati Raj, spread of literacy and education

§ Reservations in government services and in Parliament + state assemblies

§ Reservation in higher education institutions

§ Tribal art & craft mela for example Adiship

§ Efforts by TRIFED for example marketing of MFP (minor forest produce)

§ Various Health policies exclusive for tribals

Issue of Official Language of India

Being a foreign language Gandhi opposed the idea of English to be overall medium of communications in free India, hence, Hindi was choosen to be the official language of India.

LINGUISTIC ISSUES and CONSOLIDATION CHALLENGE – THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

CONTROVERSY

· Back in the 1920s, the Indian National Congress – the main party of the freedom struggle – had promised that once the country won independence, each major linguistic group would have its own province. However, after independence the Congress did not take any steps to honour this promise in wake of horrors of partition and rising disruptive forces on parochial lines.

· In the debate in the constituent assembly over the issue of language, A compromise was finally arrived at: namely, that while Hindi would be the “official language” of India, English would be used in the courts, the services, and communications between one state and another.

· Issue of language snowballed into one of the biggest issues threatening the socio- cultural integration. Language emerged as an emotive issue which people identified with their core cultural identities. Language had other repercussions in form of promotion of culture, opportunities in government job and access to political power. Issue of language became a major one over two issues – one, controversy over declaration of official language and second, linguistic re-organization of states.

§ Opposition to Hindi as national language tended to create conflict between Hindi and non- Hindi speaking regions of the country.

§ This issue was Resolved when the constitution-makers accepted all the major languages as “languages of India”.

Switchover from English To Hindi

§ The issue of the time-frame for a shift from English to Hindi also produced a divide between Hindi and non-Hindi areas.

§ Proponents of Hindi wanted immediate switch over, while non-Hindi areas advocated retention of English for a long if not indefinite period.

§ Hence constitution provided that English was to continue for use in all official purposes till 1965, when it would be replaced by Hindi in phased manner.

§ However, Parliament would have the power to provide for the use of English for specified purposes even after 1965.

§ The constitution laid upon the government the duty to promote the spread and development of Hindi & provides for the appointment of Commission & a Joint Parliamentary Committee to review the progress in the respect.

1963 official languages Act

§ Removed the restriction which had been placed by the constitution on the use of English after 1965

§ Because of ambiguity in Official Languages Act due to the world “may” instead of “shall”, it felt much criticism

1967 amendment to official languages Act

§ Provided the use of English as an associate language in addition to Hindi for the official work at centre & for communication between the centre and non Hindi states would continue as long as non-Hindi states wanted it.

§ Indefinite policy of bilingualism was adopted.

§ The states were to adopt a three language formula that is study of a modern Indian language, preferably one of the Southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi speaking areas and of Hindi along with the regional languages and English in the non-Hindi speaking areas.

Parliament adopted a policy resolution lying down that the public service exams were to be conducted in Hindi and English & in all regional languages with the provision that candidates should have additional knowledge of Hindi or English.

Linguistic Reorganization of States

§ In 1917, the Congress Party had committed itself to the creation of linguistic provinces in a Free India.

§ After Congress‟s Nagpur Session in 1920, the principle was extended and formalized with the creation of provincial Congress Committee by linguistic zones.

§ The linguistic reorganization of the Congress was encouraged and supported by Mahatma Gandhi.

First Linguistic Province commission (LPC)

§ After the bitter partition on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of dividing country further on the basis of language, but there was a high demand for it especially from regional congress communities.

§ Hence, Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed Linguistic Provinces Commission, headed by Justice SK Dhar, to enquire into desirability of linguistic provinces.

§ The Dhar Commission advised against this at that time reason being it might threaten national unity and also be administratively inconvenient.

§ Linguistic Province commission (LPC) headed by Dhar supported reorganization on the basis of administrative convenience rather than on Linguistic basis.

Second Linguistic Province commission (LPC)

§ In Dec, 1948 a second LPC was formed to again verify the report given by Dhar & look into the matter again.

§ Members → J.L. Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel & Pattabhi sitaramayya

§ They gave the same report as given by Dhar, hence on 26th Jan, 1950 division took place as -

Formation of 1^st linguistic State

§ After Independence, speakers of Telugu asked the congress to implement its old resolution in favour of linguistic states.

§ The method they used to advance their causes were petitions, representations, street marches, parts.

§ A popular freedom fighter, Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra and expired after fifty-eight days.

§ After his death people were agitated and it was followed by rioting, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over Andhra.

§ The Vishal-andhra movement turned violent.

§ Finally, Nehru announced the formation of a separate state in 1952 State of Andhra Pradesh came into being

States Reorganization Commission 1953

§ The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the struggle for making of other states on linguistic lines in other parts of the country.

§ Hence Nehru appointed states Reorganisation Commission with Justice Fazl Ali, KM Panikkar & H Kunzru as members, to examine the entire question of the reorganization of the states of the Union. They recommended –

§ Abolition of 4 fold classification of states

§ Recommended creation of 16 states & 3 centrally administered territories

States Reorganization Act: 1956

§ It provided for fourteen states and six centrally administered territories.

§ SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab.

Formation of States till 2014

An opening was through to make more states in India as per the needs of the situation, but only after the decision of parliament. This led to formation of a number of new states in India as shown below:

§ Bombay reorganization act, 1960 : Formation of Gujrat

§ State of Nagaland act, 1962 : Nagaland as separated state from Assam

§ Punjab reorganization act, 1966 : Formation of Haryana

§ New state of Himachal Pradesh act , 1970

§ North eastern reorganization act, 1971 : Formation of Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram & Union territories of Arunachal Pradesh & Mizoram

§ New state of Sikkim act , 1975

§ State of Arunachal Pradesh Act, State of Mizoram act 1986 : Formation of States of Mizoram & Ar. Pradesh

§ State of Goa Act, 1987

§ P reorganization act, 2000 : Formation of Chhattisgarh

§ P reorganization act, 2000 : Formation of Uttarakhand

§ Bihar reorganization act, 2000 : Formation of Jharkhand

§ Andhra Pradesh reorganization act, 2014 : Formation of Telangana

Pending demands for new states in India

Formation of Telangana created a flame among other separatist movement for creation of new states. There are still long pending demands for state formation on the different basis viz. ethnicity, lack of development, administrative inconvenience.

Rise of Democracy in India

Faced with such serious challenges, other leaders from different countries resisted democracy as a form of governance. According to the leaders of different countries who gained freedom from colonialism, their priority was national unity, which will not be sustained with democracy as it would bring differences and conflicts. But despite illiterate population, diversities and poor economic condition Indian leaders pursued adoption of democratic measures to consolidate India.

§ Adoption of constitution on January 26, 1950 – Led to first democratically elected government

§ Election commission of India was set up in Jan 1950 with constitutional provision to conduct free & fair elections

§ India adopted universal adult franchise irrespective of any distinction of any kind with prescribed condition of age.

Election commission soon realized that it was an uphill task to conduct a free and fair election in a country of India‟s size. No election on this scale had ever been conducted in the world before.

§ Holding an election required delimitation or drawing the boundaries of electoral rolls

§ Woman often registered themselves as wife or daughter of somebody rather registering themselves by their names

Given the unawareness & high level of illiteracy, election commission trained over 3 lakhs officers and polling staff to conduct the election –

§ Candidates were to be identified by symbols, assigned to each major party

§ Independent candidates painted on ballot papers in the box assigned to a particular candidate

§ Ballot was kept secret

A remarkable feature was the wide participation of women: at least 40% of women eligible to vote did so. When elections results were declared, it was realized that nearly 46% of eligible voters had cast their vote. Thus, faith of the leadership in the people was fully justified.

The Congress System

Congress had emerged as the single largest party & formed government in all the states & at center. The fair and peaceful conduct of polls was an indication that the democratic system & institutions, a legacy of the national movement were beginning to take root. The successful conduct of the polls was one of the reasons why India and Nehru, came to be admired abroad, especially in the ex-colonial countries.

§ In the first decade, congress acted both as the ruling party as well as the opposition.

§ Congress adopted inclusive approach & accepted membership of all the strata of society & was an ideological coalition.

§ It accommodated the revolutionary and pacifist, conservative & radical, extremist & moderate & right, left and all shades of the center.

§ The coalitional nature of congress party tolerated & encouraged various factions and instead of being a weakness, internal factionalism became the strength of the congress.

§ The system of factions functioned as balancing mechanism within the ruling party.

Emergence of Opposition Parties

In initial years, all opposition parties achieved only a token representation in Lok Sabha & State assemblies during the “congress system”, period. Yet these oppositions played a key role in maintaining the democratic character of the system. The opposition parties offered a sustained and principle criticism of the ruling parties and policies of the congress.

§ In the beginning, there was high respect between congress & opposition leaders

§ But the positive rapport between congress & opposition leaders gradually declined when these parties in intense competition of achieving power.

§ As the ability of congress to accommodate all interests and all aspirants for political hour steadily declined, other political parties started gaining greater significance.

Socialist party

Foundation laid in 1934 as Congress Socialist Party, when some leaders within congress party have sought more radical & egalitarian congress.

§ After independence, the congress party changed the rule regarding duel membership & barred CSP members with congress‟s membership.

§ This situation compelled CSP leaders to form separate Socialist Party in 1948.

§ Socialists believed in the ideology of democratic socialism which distinguished them both from congress and communists.

§ Socialist party leaders criticized congress for favouring capitalists and landlord and ignoring teaming masses like workers, peasants.

§ Socialist party offered limited cooperation to the congress when the congress party in 1955 declared its goal to be the socialist pattern of society.

§ In the contemporary times, the Samajwadi party, Rashtriya Janta Dal (RJD), Janta Dal (United), Janta Dal (Secular) traces their origins to the socialist party.

Bhartiya Jan Sangh (BJS)

§ Formed in 1951 by SP Mukharjee & trace its roots with RSS & Hindu Mahasabha before independence.

§ BJS emphasised the idea of one country, one culture and one notion and believed that the country could become modern, progressive and strong on the basis of Indian culture and traditions.

§ BJS leaders were Shyama Prasad Mukharjee, Deen Dayal Upadhayaya, and Balraj Madhok.

§ In the contemporary times, the Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP) traces its roots to BJS

The Communist Party of India

Taking inspiration from the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, there emerged lots of communist group advocating socialism is the solution to the problems affecting the notion in 1920‟s.

§ The communists worked mainly within the congress fold, but they had separated themselves from the congress when they supported British in WW2.

§ Communist believed in violent uprising to gain control but after independence they abandoned violent means & participated in general elections and emerged as second largest opposition party.

§ CPI spilt up in 1964 and the pro-china faction formed the CPI (Marxist).

§ Now, the base of both has shrunk a lot and their presence concentrates in very few states of the country.

Swatantra Party

The swatantra party was formed in August 1959 after Nagpur resolution of the congress which called for land ceilings, takeover of food grain trade by the state, adoption of cooperative forming. They didn‟t believe this resolution.

§ Party believed lesser involvement of the government in economy & opposed development strategy of state intervention in economy, nationalization & Public sector.

They opposed progressive tax regime & demanded dismantling of license Raj.

It was critical of non-alignment policy & friendly relations of India with the Soviet Union and advocated closer ties with the USA.

The industrialist and big landlords supported this party.

This party has a very limited influence, lacked dedicated cadres, so it didn‟t perform well.

Chapter-2

Economic & Diplomatic Development of India

Economic Development of India Mixed Economy Model

§ Post-Independence condition: Poverty, illiteracy, ruined agriculture & industry → Distorted Economy.

§ Ensuring well-being and economic development were the important challenges for the Indian leadership.

§ To pursue these goals, they had two model of economic development, liberal – capitalist model followed in USA & Europe, & the socialist model followed in USSR.

§ Indian Parliament in 1954 accepted „ the socialist pattern of society as the objective of social & economic policy.

§ In fact the model projected was of a “mixed economy” where the public and the private sectors were not only to co-exist but to be complementary to each other.

§ Private sector was encouraged to grow with as much freedom as possible within the broad objectives of the national plan.

India adopted the mixed model of economic development, which has features of both the capitalist & socialist models as there was a mature indigenous entrepreneurial class (Birlas, Tatas, Singhanias) that developed an independent economic base which was an asset for post- independence planned development.

Everyone was more or less agreed on following agenda

§ Multi-pronged strategy of economic development based on self-reliance.

§ Rapid industrialization based on import-substitution including capital goods industries.

§ Prevention of imperialist or foreign capital domination.

§ Land reforms involving tenancy reforms.

§ Abolition of Zamindari system.

§ Introduction of cooperatives especially of service cooperatives like marketing, credit, etc.

Why India rejected capitalist style of Modernization?

During that era, development meant becoming more and more modern like industrialized countries of West.

§ India rejected such model because majority of the people were illiterate & to become modern, breakdown of traditional social structures was required, which was highly impossible.

§ Modernization was also associated with the ideas of growth, material progress and scientific rationality, but due to lack of resources and education, it was not possible in India which was fully dyed in the wool of caste based mentality.

To sum up → Lack of education, poverty, food insecurity, lack of capital, resources & technology, caste based society were major reasons behind rejection of capitalist model of economy.

New Economic Policy 1991

In the late 1980‟s government expenditure began to exceed its revenue by such large margins that it became unsustainable.Inflation was soaring, imports grew in excess to the export to such a level that foreign exchange reserves declined to a level that it was not adequate to finance imports for more than two weeks.

§ Foreign exchange was insufficient to pay the interest to international lenders.

§ To ward off this precarious situation of economy, India approached the World Bank and IMF and received $7 billion as loan to manage the crisis.

§ In return, these institutions wanted that the Indian should open up the economy by removing restrictions of the several sectors and reduce the role of government in many areas and remove trade restrictions.

LPG Reforms

§ India had no choice but to accept these conditions and announced the New Economic Policy.

§ The Crux of the policy was to remove the barrier to the entry of private firms and to create more competitive environment for the economy.

§ These reforms can be classified into two types:

§ The stabilization measures [short term]

§ The structural reform measures [Long term]

§ Government initiated a variety of policies which fall under three heads viz. Liberalization, Privatization & Globalization, “LPG Policy”.

§ The first two are policy strategies & the last one is the outcome of these strategies.

Liberalization

§ Industrial licensing was abolished for almost all but product categories – alcohol, cigarettes, hazardous chemicals industries, expensive electronics, aerospace drugs and pharmaceuticals.

§ The only industries now reserved for the public sector are defence equipment, atomic energy generation and railway transport.

§ In many industries, the market has been allowed to determine the prices.

Financial sector reforms – Major aim was to reduce the role of RBI from regulator to facilitator of financial sector. These reforms led to the establishment of private sector banks & entry of foreign banks with certain conditions on FII.

Tax Reforms – Since 1991, there has been a continuous reduction in the taxes on individual incomes. The rate of corporation tax was reduced; simplification of procedures to pay the income tax was also initiated.

Foreign Exchange Reforms – Initially the rupee was devalued against foreign currencies. This led to the increase in the inflow of foreign exchange. Now usually, markets determine exchange rates based on the demand and supply of foreign exchange.

Privatization

§ Government had shed off the ownership and management of various government owned enterprises.

§ Government started disinvestment by selling off equity of PSU‟s.

§ The purpose behind such move was to improve financial discipline and to facilitate modernization.

§ The government also made attempts to improve the efficiency of PSUs by giving them autonomy in taking managerial decisions.

Globalization

§ Globalisation is the outcome of liberalisation & privatisation.

§ Globalisation implies greater interdependence & integration.

§ The best example is of outsourcing. e.g. BPOs.

§ Globalization is mix bag of results. On one hand it has provided greater access to global markets, imports of high Technology etc. on the other hand developed countries expands their markets in other countries.

§ It has also been pointed out that markets driven globalization has widened the economic disparities among nations and people.

ERA of Information and Communication Technology

In India, the path towards technology induced development especially associated with ICT, was given a vent in 1984 by Rajiv Gandhi government. He adopted an effective route to development with massive programme of computerization, launched in commercial and the public sectors undertakings and in administrative departments.

§ In 1998, National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development prepared the blue print for making the adoption of IT as a national movement by establishing a wide network of empowered taskforce at all governmental & non- governmental level.

§ In 1999, the Ministry of Information Technology was established by bringing together government agencies involved in different aspects of IT for creating job to harness opportunities provided by convergence of communication technologies and to facilitate the use of IT in use of Electronic Governance.

§ ICT generated new possibilities to address problems of rural poverty, inequality and environmental degradation.

IT Industry India

§ In India, the growth of information technology and communications is very significant in the past two decades.

§ IT Industry in India comprises of software industry and information technology enabled services [ITES] which also includes BPO industry.

§ India is considered as a pioneer in software development and a favorite destination for IT- enabled services (ITES).

§ Many other countries look to India as a model for global outsourcing and try to imitate elements of this is their own strategies.

§ Indian government use ICT for delivery of government information & services to citizens (G2C), to businesses [G2B], to employees [G2E], and to governments [G2G].

§ Government of India initiated an e-government programme by adopting the Information Technology Act in 2000.

§ The major aims of this Act were to recognize electronic contracts, prevent computer crimes and make electronic filing possible.

§ Later in 2006, Government approved the National e governance Plan [NeGP) to enhance e government initiatives in India.

§ Recently Indian Government has launched Digital India Programme to take Indian IT industry on whole new level.

§ Almost all state governments & UTs have implemented their own e government services to serve their citizens.

Emergence of Planning System in India

§ Planning as a process of rebuilding economy earned worldwide public support in 1940‟s & 1950‟s

§ There was a general consensus on one point that „the government‟ should plan for the development, not the private sector.

§ Great depression in Europe, Post WW2 reconstruction of the world + spectacular economic growth against heavy odds in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and 1940s contributed to this consensus.

1938

National Planning Committee‟ was established under the chairmanship of Nehru by INC. Its re beginning of the Second World War

1944 „Bombay Plan‟ was presented by 8 leading industrialists ofBombay

1944 „Gandhian Plan‟ was given by Narayan Agarwal

1945 „People‟s Plan‟ was given by M N Roy

1950 „Sarvodaya Plan‟ was given by J P Narayan – based on Vinoda bhave‟sphilosophy

Planning Commission (as an advisory body to the government) was set up in 1950 by a simple resolution of Government. The scope of the resolution by which Planning Commission was formed:

§ Adequate means of livelihood for everyone

§ Material resources of community should serve the common good

§ Economic system should operate in such a way that use of „means of production‟ and

„wealth‟ should not result in well-being of particular community and to the detriment of the society.

Like USSR, Planning Commission of India opted for five year plan which permitted the government to focus on the larger picture and make long term intervention in the economy.

Five Year Plans – India

First Five Year Plan: 1951 – 56

§ Was based on Harrod – Domar Model of development

§ Rapid development of agriculture in order to move towards food self-sufficiency.

§ Addressed mainly the agrarian sector including investment in dams and irrigation

§ Due to the bitter Partition, Agricultural sector was hit hardest and needed urgent attention

§ Also focused on land reform for the country‟s development

Second Five Year Plan: 1956 – 61 (Mahabolis plan)

§ Thrust on heavy industries – industrialization

§ Advocated huge imports which led to emptying of funds leading to foreign loans

§ Deficit financing started in this plan → government funding of spending by borrowing

§ Price level increased by 30%, against a decline of 13% during the First Plan

Focus – Basic & heavy industries such as iron & steel, heavy chemicals like nitrogenous fertilizers, heavy engineering and machine building industry.

Third Five Year Plan: 1961 – 66 – Defence & Price stabilization

§ Aim was to make India a „Self – Reliant‟ and „Self – Generating‟ Economy

§ Panchayat elections started

§ Based on the experience of first two plans, agriculture was given top priority to support the exports and industry.

§ Complete failure in reaching the targets due to unforeseen events – Chinese aggression (1962), Indo-Pak war (1965), severe drought 1965-66

Three Annual Plans (1966 – 69) – Plan holiday for 3 years

§ Prevailing crisis in agriculture and serious food shortage

§ Green revolution & introduction of HYVs

§ Nationalization of 14 banks in 1969

Fourth Five Year Plan: 1969 -74 – Growth, Stability & self-reliance

§ Growth with stability & social justice → progress towards self – reliance

§ Main emphasis on agriculture‟s growth rate so that a chain reaction can start

§ Had to tackle the influx of Bangladeshi refugees before and after 1971 Indo – Pak war

§ Gadgil formula applied for center‟s assistance to states

§ Pokhran nuclear test

Fifth Five Year Plan: 1974 – 79 (DD Dhar Garibi Hatao) – Poverty elimination & self-reliance

§ Drafted by DD Dhar with an aim to Removal of Poverty‟ (Garibi Hatao) and „Attainment of Self Reliance‟, through promotion of high rate of growth.

§ National Program of Minimum needs was initiated viz. Primary Education, Drinking Water; Medical facilities in rural areas, Food, Land for Landless Laborers, Rural Roads, Rural Electrification etc.

§ The plan was terminated in 1978 (instead of 1979) when Janta Government, came to power.

Sixth Five Year Plan (1980 – 85)

§ Focus was on increase in national income, modernization of technology

§ Ensuring continuous decrease in poverty and unemployment

§ Population control through family planning, National highway launched etc.

Seventh Five Year Plan (1985 – 90)

§ Aimed at rapid growth in food-grains production & increased employment opportunities

§ Targeted productivity within the framework of basic tenants of planning

§ It was a great success, the economy recorded 6% growth rate against the targeted 5%.

Eighth Five Year Plan (1992 – 97)

§ Focus areas → Human development + Industrial modernisation + Population control.

§ The eighth plan was postponed by two years because of political upheavals at the Centre.

§ it was launched after a worsening Balance of Payment position and inflation during 1990

− 91.

Objectives – Liberalization, Privatization & Globalization, together, defined the framework of new policy regime of radical reforms with market driven paradigm of development – emphasized high growth and employment generation.

Ninth Five Year Plan (1997 – 2002)

§ Focused on generating employment

§ Providing food security to everyone

§ Continued liberalization

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002 – 2007)

§ Focus areas → Education + Health + Environment

§ Reduction of poverty and creation of additional gainful employment

§ Agricultural development universal primary education

§ Reduction in infant and maternal mortality rates accorded high priority

Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007 – 2012)

§ Focus areas → Education + Health + Environment + Infrastructure

§ Emphasized the need for focusing on „inclusive growth‟ i.e.

§ rapid growth that reduces poverty and creates employment opportunities

§ provides access to essential services in health and education especially for the poor

§ empowerment through education and skill development.

Twelth Five Year Plan (2012 – 17)

§ Objective → Faster, More inclusive & sustainable growth

§ Target – GDP (9%) + Agriculture (4%) + Mfg (10%)

§ 10% reduction in property than the rate at the end of 11^th plan+ 50 million new jobs

§ Reduce IMR to 25; MMR to 1 + Increase Child Sex Ratio to 950 + Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1

Green Revolution in India

To reduce the dependence of India on foreign aids for supply for good grains during the agricultural crises like droughts, floods etc. and envisaged to make India self-dependent and self-sustained nation in terms of food grains availability.

Prevailing Conditions before the introduction of Green Revolution

§ The focus for Indian agriculture was only on institutional reforms, not on the technological base

§ Rising population & huge outlays towards planned industrialization put long term pressures on Indian agriculture which resulted in massive demand.

§ To meet food shortage, India was forced to import food in greater amount.

§ Two wars, one with China (1962) and another with Pak (1965) and successive drought in years 1965– 1966, led to fall in agriculture output massively. Food prices shot up.

§ USA due to India‟s stand on Vietnam & India‟s denial of accepting an economy policy package – sent inferior quality seeds during shortage of food, under PL-480 Scheme

§ Due to the grim Scenario of 1960‟s, economic self-reliance & food self-sufficiency became top priority objectives of Indian leadership.

Government‟s positive initiative during Green Revolution Period

§ Government investment in agriculture rose significantly.

§ Institutional finance in agriculture sector doubled from 1968 to 1973.

§ Agricultural price commission was set up & efforts were made to assure sustained remunerative price to farmers.

§ Public investment, institutional credit remunerative prices & availability of the new technology for farmers.

§ The result of government‟s initiative was that the rate of increase in the gross irrigated area rose from 1 million hectares per annum in Pre Green Revolution to about 2.5 million hectares per annum during the 1970s.

Positive impact of Green Revolution

Food grain production rose significantly. By 1980‟s not only was India self-sufficient in food, but also it was exporting food to pay back its earlier loans and to loan to deficit countries.

§ Maintained the agricultural growth rates plus it generated a rapid increase in the marketable surplus of food grains

§ The liberation from dependence on PL–480 or other imports for food security

§ Small farmers applied more inputs per unit of land compared to large farmers to get maximum results

§ Small farmers became more viable and did not sell out their land to large land holding farmers in distress.

§ Not only generated employment in agriculture but also nonagricultural rural & semi-urban employment through the development of agro industries, transport industry, and other agriculturally allied sectors.

§ Increase in income of farmers led to the demand for factory produced consumer durables like radios, watches, TVS, Sewing machines etc.

§ Surplus stocks of food-grain helped government to launch employment generating and poverty alleviation programmes in backward areas.

Green Revolution had a major impact on rural poverty level which declined sharply through food availability, & resulted in decline in relative prices of food, generating employment in agricultural sector & agriculturally allied areas

Negative impacts of the Green Revolution

Huge disparity and polarization between classes & regions resulted in favourable conditions for left wing org. to organise the poor peasants into Left Wing Extremism for their rights

§ Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

§ Led to plateauing of the growth rates in areas like Punjab & Haryana.

§ Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation without adequate recharging of the sub soil aquifers.

§ Tenants and share croppers who did not have security of tenure were perhaps the only losers.

§ Rise in feeling of regionalism divided the nation on developing & backward states.

To appease the Farming Community in Green Revolution belt, many political parties provided electrical power with subsidy or totally free which led to misuse of it and adversely affected the overall health of Indian economy.

Operation Flood and Cooperatives

Peasants of Kheda district, Gujarat which supplied milk to Bombay felt cheated by the milk traders. They met Sardar Patel who was from the same region to redress their grievances.

§ At the initiative of Patel and Morarji Desai, farmers organized themselves into a cooperative union; pressurize the Bombay government with Milk Strike to buy milk directly from their Union.

§ These farmers registered themselves in Anand, Gujarat in Dec, 1946.

§ Tribhuvandas Patel, convinced the farmers to form milk cooperatives, later became its chairman and remained so for 25 years.

§ Dr. Verghese Kurien was CEO of this Union from 1950 to 1973.

§ Meanwhile in 1955, the Union chose “Amul” the name for its range of products, which competed with MNC companies of dairy products like Glaxo & Nestle.

§ “Anand Pattern” of Khera cooperative union gradually spread to other districts in Gujarat in 1974.

§ In 1964, PM Shastri ji wrote to the all CM‟s of the states to set up cooperative dairies on “Anand Pattern”.

§ To perform this task NDDB (National Dairy Development Board) was created in 1965– Mr. Verghese Kurien was made its chairman.

Beginning of Operation Flood

Drawing heavily from Khera Union for personnel, expertise and much more, NDDB launched “Operation Flood”, a programme to replicate the “Anand Pattern” in other milkshed of country. Operation Flood organised cooperatives of milk producers into a nation-wide milk grid for –

§ Increasing milk production

§ Bringing producers & consumers closer by eliminating middlemen

§ Assuring the producers a regular income throughout the year.

It was not just a dairy programme, but a path to development, generating employment & income of rural households and alleviating poverty.

Impact of operation Flood

The obvious impact of operation Flood was the considerable increase in milk supply and consequent increase in income of the milk producers, particularly the poor. It was estimated that 60% of the beneficiaries were marginal or small farmers and landless labourers. Milk cooperatives proved to be a significant anti-poverty measure.

§ Helped in the establishment of an indigenous dairy equipment manufacturing industry

§ Developed animal nutrition, animal health, artificial insemination management information systems (MIS), dairy engineering, food technology

§ Operation flood was instrumental in empowerment of women. Operation flood with the help of NGOs like SEWA helped in establishing about 6,000 Women dairy cooperative societies.

§ Had a spillover effect on other cooperatives too for ex. Cooperatives for fruits & vegetable producers, oilseeds cultivators, small scale salt makers and tree grower were doing excellently well which were initiated by NDDB.

Limitations of Cooperativization

Danial Thorner, the noted economist during his observation of cooperatives found many weaknesses on the cooperative movements. He observed two types cooperatives in case of joint farming.

§ One was of rich & landowning farmers. They formed such cooperatives to evade land reforms & access incentives offered by the state. These were bogus kind of cooperatives where big farmers enrolled their labourers & ex-tenants as members.

§ The other, second type of cooperatives was state sponsored cooperative forms where uncultivated lands of the government made available to landless labourers &

underprivileged groups. These cooperatives didn‟t live up to their expectations in terms of benefits of scale.

Service cooperatives

Service cooperatives fared better than farming cooperatives but service cooperatives reinforced casted based hierarchical structure.

§ Leaders of such cooperatives mostly drawn from traders and money lending communities. Hence no benefits to poor.

§ Instead of promoting people‟s participation in cooperative movement, very soon it became overstaffed with government officials & became inefficient.

§ Credit cooperatives suffered from major drawback of failure of repayment of loans, which led to large percentage of over-dues.

§ Contrary to common perception, rich & landowning community were the largest defaulters not the poor and small farmers.

India‟s Bilateral Relations

India used foreign policy as an instrument to defend and strengthen India‟s independence and to develop the self-reliance, self-confidence and pride of the masses while serving the cause of world peace and anti-colonialism.

INDIA‟s ROLE in INTERNATIONAL ARENA

Korea War and Non-Alignment Policy: End of Second World War left Korea divided and hostile to each other. India supported US resolution in 1950 in UN when North Korea invaded South Korea and condemned North Korea as aggressor. However, US got miffed when India abstained from another resolution calling for an armed intervention. US sent its force under leadership of General McArthur without a UN approval and crossed the 38th parallel and marched into North Korea. China warned US on this and came into defense of North Korea and fight ensued. US moved another resolution calling China aggressor (though in reality it was US which was aggressor) and India voted against it. India was only line of communication between China and US and after long efforts, both sides agreed to hold ceasefire and recognized the same boundaries which they wished to change. A „Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission‟ was formed under India General Thimayya‟s leadership to repatriate soldiers. Korean War was a test of Non-Alignment policy of India and its foreign policy. In whole turn of events, India first miffed USSR and China when it termed North Korea aggressor and then miffed US when it abstained from UN vote and later voted against US resolution calling China as an aggressor. India didn‟t dilute its stance in difficult circumstances as in the same period, China attacked Tibet without taking India into picture, India even supported permanent seat of China in UNSC which USSR didn‟t like. India also needed US help to meet challenge of food security during famine. However, later everyone acknowledged the stance of India and the incidents prove to be a sound testimony of genuineness and worth of non-alignment policy.

§ India proceeded with its foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other nations & to achieve security through the maintenance of peace.

§ This aim finds an echo in the Directive principles of state Policy, in the Article 51 of constitution: “Promotion of international peace and security”

The three major objectives of Nehru‟s foreign policy were:

§ To preserve hard earned sovereignty.

§ Protect territorial integrity.

§ Promote rapid economic development.

§ Major function of Indian foreign policy was to promote and protect Indian economic interests.

§ Nehru played a crucial role in setting the national agenda

§ He was his own foreign minister hence, both as the Prime Minister and the foreign minister; he exercised profound influence in the formulation and implementation of India‟s foreign policy from 1947 to 1964.

Nehru outlined five principles which were called “Panchsheel” of India‟s Foreign Policy

§ mutual respect for each other‟s territorial integrity and sovereignty,

§ nonaggression,

§ non-interference in each other‟s internal affairs,

§ equality and mutual benefit, and

§ Peaceful co-existence.

Reason for Non-alignment Policy

§ After the end of WW II, the world was divided into two hostile blocs, one led by USA & western powers; another was by the Soviet Union.

§ Nehru thought that the poor countries of Asia and Africa would gain nothing and lose everything if they join such military blocs which will serve their own self interests.

§ The leaders of NAM were firm in their view to expand the “area of peace” instead of hostility.

§ Hence India & countries like Egypt; Indonesia did not approve joining of Baghdad Pact, Manila Treaty, SEATO & CENTO, which were the major military blocs.

§ Non-Alignment came to symbolize the struggle of India and other newly independent nations to retain and strengthen their independence from colonialism and imperialism.

§ To pursue the dream of a peaceful world, India advocated non alignment policy by reducing the cold war tensions & contributing human resources to the UN peace keeping operations.

Due to acceptance of non-alignment policy, many nations of the world got their voice heard in UN. One country, one vote system enabled the non-aligned bloc to check domination by the Western bloc. Thus, Non alignment advanced the process of democratization of international relations.

Relations with Pakistan

Hindu ruler Hari Singh tried to negotiate with India & Pak to have an independent status for his state. Since majority population of the state was Muslim, the Pakistan thought Kashmir „belonged„ to them.

On 15th August Harisingh offered standstill agreement with both countries which allowed the free movement of people & goods. Pakistan signed the agreement but India didn‟t. Pakistan became impatient & started violating standstill agreement. 24th October Hari Singh demanded military assistance from India. Mountbatten pointed out that under international law India can send its troops only after state signs a formal instrument of accession – on 26^th Oct Maharaja signed instrument of accession – ratified in 1954.

27th Oct. morning nearly 100 planes airlifted men and weapons to Srinagar. Pakistan army left the main valley region but continue to occupy a large chunk of territory of Gilgit, Baltistan region – Pak occupied Kashmir.

At the same time India lodged the complaint against Pakistan for their illegal actions in UN. Instead of getting justice at UN, Western powers backed Pakistan. India also accepted the UN resolution on ceasefire in spite of its advantageous position and agreed for plebiscite in Kashmir, which laid down two conditions for holding plebiscite –

§ Pak should withdraw its forces from the state of J&K

§ The authority of the Srinagar administration should be restored over the whole state

§ Above mentioned first conditions was never fulfilled, so there was no plebiscite there.

§ Meanwhile J&K participated in India‟s general elections and then the talk of plebiscite remained irrelevant.

Kashmir conflict didn‟t prevent cooperation between governments of India & Pak. Both the governments worked together to restore the abducted women to their original families, a long term dispute of river water sharing was resolved – with world Bank‟s mediation and India- Pakistan Indus Water Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960.

1965 India Pakistan War

§ Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat, later it launched bigger offensive in J & K in 1965.

§ Pakistan thought that this time the local population would support the cause of Pakistan, but nothing of this sort happened.

§ Meanwhile, in order to ease the pressure from Kashmir front, Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch counter offensive on the Punjab border.

§ War was won by India, and the hostilities came to an end with UN intervention.

Due to the mediation of Soviet Union, Both the countries signed the Tashkent Agreement [Shastri from India & General Ayub Khan from Pak] in January 1966. Although India won the war, this war added India the economic difficulties.

1971 India Pakistan War

The internal crisis of Pakistan after the verdict of their general elections turned violent. Ruling party of Zulfikar Bhutto emerged as winner in West Pakistan while in Eastern Part Rahman‟s Awani League won with great margins. However, strong and powerful western establishment ignored the democratic verdict and didn‟t accept the League‟s demand for federation. Instead of responding to their demands and verdict positively, Pak army arrested Rahman and unleashed brutal terror activities and suppressed their voices.

§ To end this menace permanently, people of Eastern Pak started liberation struggle of Bangladesh from Pak.

§ Due to the huge influence of refugees from Eastern Pak, India deliberated much and later extended its support to people‟s cause materially and morally, which was frowned by Western Pak as Indian conspiracy to break of Pakistan.

§ The support to Western Pak came from the USA & China to quash the people‟s movement.

§ To ensure its safety from the attacks of American and Chinese backed Pak, India signed 20 year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union.

§ Even after much diplomatic deliberations no concrete results could be achieved, and full scale war broke out in 1971 on both the western and Eastern front.

§ With the support of local population in the form of “Mukti Bahini” Indian army made rapid progress and compelled the Pakistani troops to surrender in 10 days only.

With emergence of Bangladesh as an independent country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire. Later Shimla Agreement of 1972 between Indira Gandhi & Zulfikar Bhutto brought back the peace between two nations.

Kargil War

After the debacle of 1971 war, Pak army never tried to fight with Indian army directly & started the proxy war by sending the terrorists trained by their secret agencies to create havoc and panic in J & K and India.

§ In 1999, so called Mujahideens occupied several points on the Indian side of LOC in the Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar, Batalik.

§ Suspecting Pak‟s hand behind such activities, Indian forces immediately started retaliating to such proxy war which is known as “Kargil conflict”.

§ This conflict got worldwide attention because of the nuclear capabilities attained by these countries in 1998, which could be used by either side, however nuclear weapons were not used in war, and Indian troops regained their points.

There was huge controversy surrounding this Kargil conflict, that, the then PM of Pak was kept in the dark of such move. Later, the then Pak army Chief General Parvez Musharraf took over as its President.

Relations with China

India adopted a policy of friendship towards China since the beginning. India was the first to recognize the new People‟s Republic of China on January 01, 1950. Nehru also supported the representation of China in UNSC. When Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signed “Panchsheel “Treaty, at the same time India recognized China‟s right over disputed territory of Tibet and approved the Chinese control over it.

1962 India China War

§ In October 1962, the Chinese army launched a massive attack and overran India posts in the eastern sector in NEFA [now Arunachal].

§ India army commander in NEFA fled without resistance and left behind open door for Chinese personnel to attack India.

§ In western sector, Chinese captured 13 posts in Galwan Valley, & Chushul airstrip (Ladakh) were threatened.

§ India was apprehensive of such move by China and sought American and British help later

§ However Chinese themselves declared a unilateral withdrawal but soured the relationship between the two nations.

Impact of 1962 War

§ The resources for the economic development and third five year plan were diverted for defence and India faced very difficult situation.

§ In August 1963, Nehru faced His first and the last confidence motion of his life.

§ It induced a sense of national humiliation and dented India‟s image at home and abroad.

§ Nehru was severely criticized for his naive assessment of the Chinese intentions & lack of military preparedness.

§ Relations between the nations remained cold till 1976. Normal relations resumed in 1976, and later the then Foreign minister AB Vajpayee was the first top level leader who visited China in 1979.

INDIA‟s RELATIONS WITH SUPERPOWERS and NEIGHBOURS

India and the USA – India wanted to have cordial and friendly relationships with US despite its policy of non-alignment. The US, however, disappointed India first on Kashmir issue, then over food aid. The US had big influence in the UN and it used it to project a negative image of India over Kashmir issue and ignored the fact that Pakistan was an aggressor and it later even provided military help to Pakistan on the name of countering Soviet threat. Similarly food-aid was delayed to India and she was humiliated. The US also showed it open displeasure over India‟s recognitionof

communist China as a nation and India‟s support to its permanent seat in UNSC. The US was also miffed by India‟s abstention in the UN resolution over Korea war. US also dragged cold war at India‟s doorstep by including Pakistan in military blocks like SEATO and CENTO and it termed non-alignment as immoral. On Goa issue also, the US supported Portuguese claim. The US was grossly obsessed with its anti- communist crusade and in this fervor failed to appreciate Indian stance quite frequently. Further, the US never saw India as a strong bulwark against communism and according to it India might collapse under burden of its diversity. However, people to people contacts remained healthy and the US was also a source of technology and machinery. When India went closer to the USSR, the US got wary and started to think towards improving its relations with India. However, situation took a bad turn in wake of 1962 war with China in which the US tacitly supported India. When Indira Gandhi came to power, she tried to considerably improve relations with the US and the UK. However, she was disappointed when the US president Lyndon Johnson dithered over her request for food shipments in aftermath of 1965 war and draught as the US wanted to make India apologetic of her criticism of Vietnam War. As a result, India ventured on to bring Green Revolution for food security, further strengthening NAM and pursue a more independent foreign policy.

§ India and USSR – Indian relations with Soviet Union started on a cold note as it perceived India under imperial influence as India joined Commonwealth. Further, Communist Party of India was also in opposition to Indian government. First major sign of India‟s truly non-aligned status appeared in India‟s position vis-à-vis Korea war when India voted against UN resolution calling China as aggressor. Impressed, Soviet and China sent food shipments to India when India was badly hit by draught. The process of friendship speeded up after death of Stalin in 1954 and it even offered military equipment in wake of Pakistan joining CENTO and SEATO, but India refused citing its non-alignment. Relations took healthy turn when Nehru visited USSR in 1955 and Russian president visited India following year. This time onward, the USSR also offered full support on Kashmir issue through veto in UNSC and it provided huge relief to India. USSR also supported integration of Goa. USSR also supported industrial development of India and helped in setting up heavy industries like Bhilai and Bokaro steel plant. The USSR also supplied machinery and equipments for other heavy industry projects. The USSR also didn‟t sided with its communist brother China when Indo-China relations deteriorated over Dalai Lama issue in 1959 and in fact made first military agreement with India in 1960 to make border roads along Chinese border which were damaged by China. In 1962, India got a license to manufacture MIG aircrafts – first time for a non Soviet nation. The USSR also remained neutral and rather empathized with India in war with China and later bolstered their military equipment ties with India which served India well in 1971 war. The USSR also got a tacit ally amidst Cold War as India‟s stance was always tilted towards the USSR. Soviets also had a long disputed border with China and friendship with India meant diverting Chinese attention and keeping a check on it. Most importantly, the support of the USSR had always been unconditional unlike Western support which always came with many strings attached. When Indira came to power, she also continued a policy of closeness with the USSR.

§ Nepal and India – With Nepal, there were historic ties of India and they were further strengthened with 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship and allowed Nepal free passage through India. Both countries also agreed to be responsible for each other‟s security.

§ Burma and India – With Burma, border issues were settled amicably.

§ Pakistan and India – Pakistan‟s invasion of Kashmir and subsequent accession of Kashmir and ensuing events have already been discussed. Kashmir issues was continuously used to blackmail India in UN and Pakistan also grew closer to US and joined its regional military blocks like SEATO, CENTO etc. It was only USSR which recognized genuineness of Indian non-alignment that it helped India militarily as well in international fora as well. It supported Kashmir issue as well by vetoing resolutions in UNSC. From 1962, Pakistan also sided with China, thus threatening India in a two side pressure which seemed to be very acute in 1971. India showed great generousness in division of pre-partition assets, division of water of Indus water and treatment of refugees and their compensation

India‟s Nuclear Policy

§ India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes.

§ A significant component of his industrialisation plans was the nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s, under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha.

India‟s Three Stage Nuclear Programme

§ Was formulated by Dr. Homi Bhabha in the 1950s

§ India has 25% of world thorium reserves but only 1-2% global uranium reserve

§ it will enable the thorium reserves of India to be utilised in meeting the country‟s energy requirements

Stage 1 – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor

§ Natural uranium fuelled pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWR) produce electricity

§ Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of the fissile isotope uranium-235

§ Most of the remaining 99.3% is uranium-238 which is not fissile but can be converted in a reactor to the fissile isotope plutonium-239

§ In PWHR, enrichment of Uranium to improve concentration of U-235 is not required. U- 238 can be directly fed into the reactor core.

§ Generate plutonium-239 as by-product [U-238 → Plutonium-239 + Heat]

§ Heavy water (deuterium oxide, D 2O) is used as moderator and coolant in PHWR

Stage 2 – Fast Breeder Reactor

§ Would use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel made from plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and natural uranium

§ plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranium-238 present in the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239

§ Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to “breed” more fuel than they consume

§ Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239 can sustain a chain reaction. But Uranium-238 cannot sustain a chain reaction, so it is transmuted to Plutonium-239

Stage 3 – Thorium Based Reactors

§ an advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series of thorium-232- uranium-233 fuelled reactors

§ This would be a thermal breeder reactor, which in principle can be refueled after its initial fuel charge using only naturally occurring thorium

According to the three-stage programme, Indian nuclear energy could grow to about 10 GW through PHWRs fueled by domestic uranium, and the growth above that would have to come from FBRs till about 50GW

Beginning of Nuclear Programme in India

§ In 1974, India under the leadership of Indira Gandhi conducted its 1^st nuclear explosions and termed it as peaceful explosion (Operation Smiling Buddha) with the argument that it was committed to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.

§ Earlier the five permanent members of UNSC (five nuclear weapon acquired powers) tried to impose NPT in 1968 on rest of the world.

§ India considered such move as discriminatory & refused to adhere to it.

§ India always maintained that treaty like NPT was selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers; legitimizing the monopoly of the Five Nuclear weapon holding powers.

§ In 1998, India again conducted a series of nuclear test after 1974, displaying its capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes. After some time, Pak too conducted such test, and increased vulnerability of the region to nuclear exchange.

§ Unhappy with moves of both India and Pak, International community imposed harsh sanctions

§ These sanctions were later waived when India assured no first use of nuclear weapon and maintained its stand of peaceful use nuclear energy and reiterated its commitment to non- discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear weapon free world

Contemporary Political Developments

Coalition Government

In initial years, the congress party gained overwhelming majority & remained in power both at the centre as well as in the states from 1947 to 1967. However, emergence of strong regional parties, politicization of various social groups & their struggle for share in power characterized political transition in contemporary India & made coalition government inevitable at the Federal level.

§ During the 4^th general elections to the Lok Sabha and state assemblies, after the demise of Nehru, & Shastri, Congress Party exhausted its mandate & motivation as a party of social & institutional change.

§ People were unhappy with corruption and lavish lifestyle of party members.

§ Due to the rapid erosion of party discipline, confidence was built up in the anti-congress wave during 1967 elections.

§ An important feature of the 1967 elections was the coming together of the opposition parties.

§ 1967 elections initiated the dual era of short lived coalition governments and politics of defection.

§ Coalition governments were formed in all opposition ruled states except Tamil Nadu.

§ Congress too formed coalition governments in some of the states.

§ In Haryana defection phenomenon was first initiated, & during 1967 to 1970 nearly 800 assembly members crossed the floor.

§ The 1967 elections, also dramatically changed the balance of power within the Congress Party – powerful group of the party received major blow as several stalwarts lost the elections.

1977 Elections – First Non Congress Government

Morarji Desai, headed four party Janata Government for about two years (1977–79). Technically, it was not a coalition because its four constituents had agreed to merge and fought the elections on a single manifesto and on a share symbol.

§ Due to the aspiration of power and position the Janata Coalition collapsed like a house of cards in 1979.

§ Others reasons for the collapse were defection; Akali & other regional groups withdrew their support.

§ Struggle for power within the coalition led to the conflicts, confrontation and mudslinging at each other.

§ After the collapse of Janata Government, India had another coalition government headed by Charan Singh. But this gov. too remained for a very short time.

§ Later for almost a decade India had a stable one party government at the centre under Congress‟s leadership.

§ People were unhappy with earlier two coalition governments.

Era of Constant Coalition Government

§ After a decade old stable government by the congress, there was a return of coalition politics.

§ Elections in 1989 led to the defeat of the Congress Party but did not result in majority for any other party.

§ This defeat of 1989 of the Congress Party marked the end of Congress dominance over the India Party System. Hence an era of multi-party system began.

§ The nineties also saw the emergence of powerful parties and movements that represented the Dalit and backward castes.

§ This new evolution in multi-party system meant that no single party secured a clear majority of seats in any Lok Sabha elections held since 1989 until BJP got majority in 2014.

Merits of Coalition Government

§ Represent aspirations of people from every region and constituency.

§ Check authoritarianism and concentration of power prevalent during 1960‟s and 1970‟s during one party dominance of Congress

§ When two or more parties come together and gain executive powers, they find themselves in a better position to serve diverse interests.

§ With the national parties forging coalition with the regional parties, it has now become easier for the Indian states to find an individual space in the national agenda.

§ Collaboration forms a common understanding of the contemporary political situation & thus parties often compromise on their radical approach and orthodox ideology.

§ It is expected that a new political alliance will refrain from repeating the mistakes committed by the past political parties.

§ When diverse political entities forge a union, there is a higher chance of them succeeding, since they concentrate on solutions and garner voters‟ support.

§ Less chances of arbitrary use of article 356 to dismiss the opposition party in power at the state level due to interdependence on state parties.

Demerits of Political Alliances

§ Each member of the coalition suffers from the sense of insecurity.

§ Even a slight digression from the common agenda or misjudging a partner‟s sentiment can cause a great damage to the union.

§ If a single party withdraws support and walks out of the alliance, the entire unit faces the threat of becoming irrelevant.

§ In political alliances, every party has certain constraints, which often force them to ignore their partners‟ anti-democratic activities.

§ They deliberately try not to criticize their partners because if the latter severe ties, the alliance would become null and void.

§ Regional parties give more importance to their own regional, geographical and economic interest overriding national interest.

Alliance between the national and regional parties in India has often affected the relations between Center and the States. While regional partners give emphasis to their respective state‟s problems and puts pressure on the coalition government to give greater attention, the coalition government is under every obligation to pay equal attention to every other state in the country. Growth of factionalism on the basis of region and caste is a by-product of

coalition politics. This creates fissures within the alliance and also damages the fabric of communal harmony.

Chapter-3

Emergency, Riots & Movements Post Independence

Emergency of 1975 Economic Issues

§ India support to Bangladesh‟s liberation caused serious repercussion on India‟s foreign exchange reserves

§ Consecutive monsoon failure in 1972 & 73 affected India food grains availability and fuelled prices.

§ Large scale unemployment and economic recession led to industrial unrest and wave of strikes in different parts of country which culminated in All India railway strike in May 1974.

v Tussle with Judiciary

§ Union government under the leadership of Indira Gandhi amended the constitution in the Parliament that it can abridge Fundamental rights while giving effect to DPSPs.

§ Later, In Kesavananda Bharti Case, the Apex Court ruled that there are some basic features of the constitution, which can‟t be amended.

§ Furious with SC judgment, Union Government changed the long term precedence of appointing senior most judges in SC as Chief Justice.

§ In 1973, the government set aside seniority of three judges and appointed Justice AN Ray as Chief Justice of India.

§ Allahabad HC, while hearing the plea of socialist leader Raj Narain on the validity of victory of Indira to Lok Sabha ruled in the his favour and set aside her victory and ruled her election invalid on the grounds of abuse of power. However, SC later granted stay [partial] on this order, and allowed her to remain MP.

JP Movement (Total Revolution)

§ The students of Gujarat protested immensely in 1974 against the rise in prices of food- grain, cooking oil & other essential commodities, later joined by the political parties too.

§ Police administration replied with excessive force, indiscriminate arrests & used lathi charge. Later union government dissolved the assembly and announced new elections to the assembly.

§ Inspired by the efforts and success by Gujarat student‟s movement, similar agitation was initiated in Bihar by students in March 1974.

§ Jayaprakash Narayan came out of his political retirement & provided the perfect leadership to these students.

§ He gave a call for “Sampooran Kranti” (Total Revolution) against the immense corruption, to defend democracy from authorization personality of Indira Gandhi.

§ During the JP Movement, people set up parallel governments all over the state, didn‟t pay the taxes etc.

§ JP Movement attracted wide support from students, middle classes, traders, and a section of the intelligentsia.

§ The JP Movement also got the backing of nearly all the non-left political parties.

§ However, by the end of 1974, JP Movement‟s fervor got down because of absence of organizational structures of the movement.

§ Most of his student followers resumed their classes.

§ The movement had failed to attract the rural and urban poor both in Gujarat and Bihar.

v Imposition of Emergency

§ Due to SC‟s partial stay on earlier‟s order, all the political parties under leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan, demanded her resignation on moral grounds.

§ Indira Gandhi resisted such demand & in response declared a state of emergency in 1975 on the grounds of threat of internal disturbances, invoking article 352 of constitution.

§ The Union Government misused its powers -

§ Electricity of the newspaper houses got disconnected, leaders of opposition parties were arrested.

§ Government curtailed the freedom of press via “Press censorship” and made it mandatory to get its approval before publishing it.

§ Protests, strikes and public agitations were not allowed.

§ Fundamental right of constitutional remedies to move the court for restoring their FRs got suspended.

§ Religious and cultural organisation like RSS, Jamait-E-Islami was banned on the apprehension of disturbance to social and communal hormony.

§ Government misused the provision of preventive detention, arrested the political workers of opposition parties.

§ Torture and custodial deaths occurred during Emergency, arbitrary relocation of poor people, imposition of compulsory sterilization to control population.

Impact of Emergency

§ Due to such harsh conditions during emergency regime, people who were awarded with honours like Padma shri and other awards returned these honours in the protest against suspension of democracy.

§ Due to the abuse of power during the period of emergency, the leaders had realised that such measures well subvert the rule of law and democratic institutions.

§ Therefore post emergency, they had ensured that such declaration of emergency, should not happen again and put stringent restrictions on declaring the emergency.

§ The preventive measures restored the people‟s faith in democracy and political leaders too adhered to such conditions and since then they never attempted to undermine the democratic framework.

§ Hence we have not seen any instance of declaration of emergency and after 1977 democracy flourished in India in true sense.

Communal Riots India

The problem of communalism begins when a religion is seen as the basis of the national unity and identity. The problem becomes sharper when followers of a particular religion are pitted against another.

Political mobilization on religious lines is another frequent form of communalism; this involves use of sacred symbols, religious leader‟s emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion together against the other religious community.

In-spite equal freedom to everyone in the country & secular character of India, it witnessed lots of communal riots which were immensely brutal and horrendous.

Ayodhya Dispute

§ A dispute had been going on for many decades over the mosque known as Babri Masjid at Ayodhya, built by Babur‟s General.

§ Some Hindus believe that it was built after demolishing a temple of Lord Rama which is believed to be his birthplace.

§ The dispute reached to the court and in late 1940‟s the mosque was locked up as the matter was with court.

§ In 1986, the Faizabad district court ordered that Babri Masjid premises to be unlocked so that Hindus could offer prayers at the statue which they considered as a temple.

§ Soon with the unlocking of doors, mobilisation on communal lines began on both the sides.

§ Gradually the local issue became national issue and increased the communal tensions.

§ In December, 1992 many Karsevaks of Hindu Right Wing faction like VHP, Bajrang Dal etc. arrived at Ayodhya in the name Karseva, voluntary service by devotees to build Ram temple.

§ Meanwhile, Apex Court ordered that State government must ensure that disputed site won‟t be endangered.

§ However thousands of peoples arrived there and demolished the Babri Masjid on Dec. 06, 1992 and vitiated the peaceful atmosphere in the country.

§ It was followed by communal riots in the country at large scale, in which lots of people died. Union gov. dismissed state government and appointed Librehan Commission to investigation circumstance leading to demolition of mosque.

Anti-Sikh Riots

§ Due to the orders of Indira Gandhi, Indian Army launched its offensive against Sikh militants at the Golden Temple in Amritsar under the code name “Operation Blue Star”.

§ The army was successful in driving out the militants from the Sikh‟s sacred place, but this event angered the Sikh People and their sentiments got hurt.

§ To avenge this action, bodyguards of Mrs. Gandhi killed her at her own house.

§ Later the angry congress workers and supporters allegedly began their brutal actions of killing innocent Sikh People in the country; Delhi was the most affected area during anti Sikh riots.

§ Union Government appointed so many commissions to enquire about the guilty people and to find out their masterminds, but nothing concrete came out of such commissions.

§ The kiths and kins of the victims of Anti-Sikh riots are still waiting to get the justice after 30 years of the incident.

Anti-Muslim riots in Gujarat (2002)

§ In 2002, Gujarat witnessed one of the ugliest communal riots in its history.

§ The spark of the riots happens at Godhra Station, where a bogey of train that was returning from Ayodhya with Karsevaks was set on fire.

§ Suspecting it to be Muslims conspiracy, large scale violence against Muslims began in many parts of Gujarat.

§ National Human Right Commission Criticized the Gujarat Govt‟s role in failing to control violence, in providing relief to the victims & prosecute the perpetrators of this violence.

Regionalism Issues in India Basis of Regionalism

Local patriotism and loyalty to a locality or region or state and its language and culture do not constitute regionalism nor are they disruptive of the national unity. Aspiring to or making special efforts to develop one‟s state, to remove poverty, implementing social justice is not branded as regionalism. However, if any state asserting its pride & interests above the national interest and against the nation in a hostile manner, then that can be dubbed as regionalism

§ The linguistic reorganization of India & the resolution of the official language controversy have played an important role by eliminating a patent cause of the feeling of cultural loss or cultural domination.

§ Despite such amity & peace, there exist many regional disputes which create friction between regional states like on sharing of river waters

Economic Imbalances & Regionalism

Economic inequality among different states and region could be a potential source of trouble. Hence to influence the rates of growth in poorer states and regions and to reduce economic distance from richer states, the central government adopted a whole range of policies.

§ Development of the poor states via transfer of financial resources by Finance Commission, a constitutional body.

§ Planning was also used as a powerful instrument to remove regional inequality. Planning Commission allocated greater plan assistance to the backward states.

§ Public investment by the central government in major industries for the reduction of regional inequality.

§ Government incentives have been provided to the private sector to invest in backward areas through subsidies, tax concessions, concessional banking and institutional loans at subsidized rates.

Inspite of above mentioned initiatives and programmes the backward states have a lower level of infrastructural facilities such as power, irrigation, roads, telephones and modern markets for agricultural produce.

Sons of Soil Doctrine

This doctrine mentions that particular state belongs to majority linguistic group inhabiting it or constitutes an exclusive “homeland” for regional language speakers.

§ In the struggle for the appropriation of economic resources and economic opportunities, recourse often takes form of communalism, casteism & nepotism.

§ Language loyalty and regionalism is used to systematically exclude the “outsiders”.

§ This doctrine was profoundly utilized in big metros like Mumbai (Marathi), Bangalore (Kannada), Kolkata (Bengali), etc.

§ “Mulki rule” provided in article 371(D) of Indian constitution safeguards the rights of local people in employment and education and was created after agitation in the state of Andhra Pradesh.

§ This is an example of Sons of soil doctrine, but this was provided only in Group C and D services.

§ Sons of the soil doctrine arise when there is actual or potential competition for industrial and middle class jobs, between the migrants and local educated middle class youth.

§ The worst case of anti-migrant or implementation of Sons of the Soil doctrine was movement led by Shiv Sena which appealed regional chauvinism & assumed fascist proportions.

§ However, the courts approved the reservation on the grounds of residence, but maintained people‟s right to migrate and their allied fundamental right regarding their movements

v Issue of J & K

Jammu and Kashmir comprises three social and political regions: Jammu, Kashmir & Ladakh. Kashmir Valley is the heart of the region. The Kashmir issue” isn‟t just a dispute between India & Pak. It has both external and internal dimensions.

§ Internally, there is a dispute which still persist and couldn‟t be resolved that related to J&K‟s special status because of Article 370 of the constitution, which gives greater autonomy to it as compare to other states in the country.

§ There is a section of people and parties outside J&K that believes that the special status of the state doesn‟t allow full integration of the state with India. Hence, it should be revoked.

§ And there are people residing in Jammu & Kashmir, mostly Kashmiri don‟t believe that autonomy conferred by Article 370 is enough. A section of Kashmiri have expressed at least three major grievances:

§ The promise of “Plebiscite” hasn‟t fulfilled.

§ Autonomy given by Article 370, has been eroded in practice

§ Democracy which is practiced in the rest of India hasn‟t been institutionalised in J&K

By 1989, the J&K state had come in the grip of a militant movement mobilised around the cause of a separate Kashmiri region. Insurgents get moral, material and military support from Pak.

Punjab Issue

§ The social composition of the state changed first with the partition and later on with creation of Haryana & HP.

§ Much before the independence, in 1920, the Akali Dal was formed as the political wing of Sikhs, which led movement for the formation of a “Punjabi Suba”.

§ After partition, the Sikhs were now a majority in the truncated state of Punjab.

§ Hence to fulfill this demand, during the 1970s a section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for the region.

§ They passed a resolution in this regard in their Anandpur Sahib Conference in 1973.

§ This resolution asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine centre-state relationship in the country.

§ They declared their goal of attaining bolbala (dominance) of the Sikhs. However, this didn‟t mean separation from India. The more extreme elements started advocating secession from India & demanded “Khalistan”.

§ Leadership of Akali was transformed from moderate to extreme elements, and they took the path of armed insurgency to get Khalistan.

§ They made the Golden Temple as their HQ in Amritsar and turned it into an armed fortress.

§ In June 1984, the government of India carried out “operation Blue star” an army action to flush out the militants.

§ It was successfully achieved by Indian army personnel. Meanwhile during the action the holy place got damaged and people‟s sentiments got hurt and this gave impetus to militant and extremist groups.

§ Later, the bodyguards of our PM Indira Gandhi shot her to avenge the feelings of Sikhs, which was followed by brutal anti Sikh riots.

§ The newly elected PM of India, Rajiv Gandhi signed an agreement with Harchand Singh Longowal the then President of Akali Dal which was known as “Rajiv Gandhi-Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord” viz.

§ Transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab.

§ Sharing of Water through tribunal between Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana

§ Compensation for those who suffered from militancy

§ Revocation of AFSPA from Punjab.

This accord didn‟t facilitate peace immediately. Militancy & counter insurgency violence continued which led to human rights violation. Fragmentation of Akali Dal started. President‟s rule was imposed. Gradually the military was eradicated by the security forces. Peace returned to Punjab during 1990‟s. The alliance of BJP and Shiromani Akali Dal emerged as victorious & brought back democratic process in the state.

Regionalism Issues – North East

The partition of India turned the North-East region into a land locked region and affected it economically. Due to this isolation from the mainstream India, the region remained backward in terms of developmental parameters.

§ The isolation of the region, its complex social character due to different ethnic tribes & their culture, lack of development, weak communications between the north-east region & rest of India fuelled the anger and soured the relationship between centre and this region, which led to varied demands of people inhabiting in this region.

§ Due to this delicate relationship, people aspired for their autonomy, secessionist movements & strict opposition to outsider from entering into their region.

§ 1972, a regional body, North-Eastern Council was set up to provide a forum for inter-state coordination regional planning & integrated development of the region to avoid intra- regional disparities. However, NEC couldn‟t control their feelings for autonomy and violent secessionist movements for that cause.

Demands for autonomy in North East

§ After the independence, except Manipur and Tripura, entire north-east region comprised the state of Assam.

§ Due to the presence of different cultures and tribes, Non assamese felt alienated with the Assamese & Bengali residents of the plain.

§ In addition to this, Assam Government imposed Assam language on them.

§ Non Assamese people protested against this move violently; tribal leaders started demanding separation from Assam.

§ Their demands were fulfilled later and several states were carved out of one Assam.

§ This fulfillment of demands couldn‟t stop some tribes from aspiring a separate state only for their tribal communities like Bodos, Karbi and Dimasas.

§ They drew centre‟s attention towards their demand of autonomy & mobilised public opinion through popular movements and insurgency.

§ It was not possible for the centre to fulfill all the regional aspirations, and create smaller and smaller states.

§ Hence, centre devised an alternative to fix this demand, such as grant of Autonomous District for such trib

v Secessionist Movements

The demands of autonomy can be fulfilled with the constitutional provisions, but when someone demands a separate country from a sovereign country then the issue gets complicated.

Mizoram

Mizo People never considered themselves as a part of British Union, thus, refused to consider themselves as Indian after Independence. Later in 1959, during the Famine in Assam, government could not take the correct measures for Mizo people. The neglect angered the Mizo people, and they formed Mizo National Front.

§ MNF took an armed campaign against Indian army through a guerrilla war aided by Pakistan.

§ Union government didn‟t budge to such guerrilla war, and used their armed and air forces well, and defeated them thoroughly.

§ But at the end of this war, after two decades each side was loser due to loss of human lives and economic resources.

§ After realising the futility of war, MNF started negotiations with the Indian Government.

§ In 1968 Rajiv Gandhi, & MNF reached for an agreement.

§ As per the peace agreement, Mizoram was granted a full fledges statehood with special powers and MNF gave up its secessionist movement.

§ Now, the state is recognised as having done a commendable job in the implementation of development programmes and making agriculture remunerative.

Nagaland

The story of Nagaland was not different from Mizoram. The demand for a separate country was declared much earlier in 1951. Naga National Council (NNC) declared its armed struggle for a sovereign country of Nagas.

§ Government of India had tried to quell such movements with limited success by bringing many Naga areas within an autonomous framework (1957), formation of the state of Nagaland (1963).

§ Still the main aim of the NSCN is to establish a sovereign state, “Nagalim” unifying all the areas inhabited by the Naga people in Northeast India and Burma.

§ For a prolonged period NNC carried out its armed campaign against Indian government.

§ Later a section of the Nagas signed a ceasefire agreement with Government of India.

§ This came to be known as the Shillong Accord, which some leaders in the NNC called as total betrayal.

§ This led to the formation of the Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) in the late 1970s.

§ It started an underground Naga Federal government having both Civil and Military wings.

§ However the cease-fire between the Union Government and the NSCN has reduced violence in Naga areas. But, the problem in Nagaland still awaits a final resolution.

Movements against outsiders in Assam

The migration of people from other part of the region of North-east region for its rich resources created lots of problem and increased the tension between „locals‟ and „outsiders‟. The migrant people were seen as encroachers, who would snatch away their scarce resources like land, employment opportunities & political power and render the local population without their legitimate due.

§ To drive away the outsiders from the region, there was one Assam Movement from 1975 to 1985.

§ Their main targets were Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh.

§ Their area of focus was illegal migration, domination of Bengali & outsiders, against faulty voter‟s register of lakhs of immigrants.

§ After 6 years of violent turmoil, Rajiv Gandhi negotiated with All Assam student‟s union (AASU) leaders & signed an accord in 1985. According this accord, the foreigners who migrated to Assam during and after Bangladesh war, were to be identified and deported.

§ With the success of signing this accord, AASU & Assam Gana Sangram Parishad came together, & formed their political party.

§ Assam Gana Parishad, won the Assembly elections in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problem and make Assam a “Golden Assam”.

§ However the problem of immigration hasn‟t been resolved yet, but it brought peace to some extent.

Regional Aspirations vs National Integration

§ From the above discussed movements of autonomy and secession, we have learnt that the regional aspirations are part of democratic politics. Around the world, we can see such aspirations.

§ In UK, there are regional aspirations in Scotland, Wales & Northern Ireland.

§ Spain faces such issue in Basques

§ Sri Lanka in Northern Province of the country

§ Another lesson is that regional aspirations shouldn‟t be suppressed, & should be deliberated, consulted and negotiated well within democratic norms and values.

§ The third point to notice is that power sharing between the centre and states should be done with utmost precision. States should have their say in matters which will affect their destinies. If the states will be deprived of their power from discussing the issue of national importance, the feeling of injustice and alienation will prevail which can destabilize the balance of power sharing.

§ Lastly, the government should address the issue of backwardness, growth & regional discrimination. Otherwise such feelings could create immense and intense complicated problems. Hence to resolve any kind of regional issues, our founding fathers made a flexible and accommodative constitution.

v Popular Movements Post Independence Naxalite Movement

The first non-congress United Front government came to power in West Bengal, comprising the CPI, CPM and Bangla Congress [a breakaway faction of the Congress]. This new government decided to expedite the implementation of land reforms, and announced a programme of quick distribution of surplus land among landless and an end to eviction of share croppers. But this process was hindered as issue of distribution of surplus land went to the court.

§ Most of these are resource rich very backward areas inhabited by Adivasis

§ Sharecroppers, tenants and small cultivators were denied their basic rights with regard to security of tenure or their share in produce, payment of fair wages etc.

§ Forced labour, expropriation of resources by outsiders and exploitation by moneylenders are also common in these areas.

§ These harsh conditions lead to the growth of the Naxalite Movement.

§ Local leader Charu Majumdar from Naxalbari area of Darjeeling district argued that democratic process of distribution of land & democracy in India is Sham; & adopt a strategy of protracted guerrilla warfare in order to lead a revolution.

§ This Naxalite Movement under Majumdar‟s leadership used force to snatch land from rich landowners and to distribute it among the poor & the landless.

§ Its supporters advocated the use of violent means to achieve their political goals.

§ Even though the then government and the subsequent governments strived to control the naxalite menace, they didn‟t succeed; rather it spread to many other parts of thecountry.

§ Currently, about 75 districts in nine states are affected by Naxalite violence

v Chipko Movement

Chipko movement began in Uttarakhand when forest department had refused permission to villagers to fell ash trees for making agricultural tools and allotted the same patch of land to sports manufacturer for commercial use.

§ Villagers demanded that no forest exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders

§ Local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land, water and forests.

§ Villagers in general, & women in particular thwarted commercial falling of trees by hugging the trees to prohibit their cutting & name chipko originates from this very practice

§ The movement achieved a victory when the then government issued a ban on felling of trees in the Himalayan regions for 15 years, until the green cover was fully restored.

§ Gaura Devi, a middle aged widow of the village was prominent figure of this movement.

§ After this movement, the Chipko movement inspired many environmental movements and gave rise to series of forests against commercial felling in Himalayan foothills led by Gandhians and leftists.

Narmada Bachao Aandolan

§ An ambitious developmental project was launched in the Narmada valley of central India in early 80‟s.

§ The project consisted of number of dams to be constructed on the Narmada and its tributaries that flow across three states, MP, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

§ Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat & Narmada Sagar Project in MP were two most important biggest, multipurpose dams planned under the project.

§ The projects mentioned above were aimed to provide drinking water, water for irrigation, generation of electricity and increase in agricultural production.

§ The project required relocation of about 2.5 lakh people and 245 villages were expected to get submerged.

§ Initially locals demanded proper relocation and proper rehabilitation.

§ It was during late 80‟s that the issue crystallised under the banner of Narmada Bachao Aandolan.

§ The prominent face of the movement was Medha Patkar, a social activist.

§ NBA demanded a proper cost benefit analysis of the major developmental projects completed in the country so far.

§ It also demanded that social cost should be calculated too with respect to such projects.

§ Social cost meant forced settlement of project affected people, serious loss of means of livelihood and culture, depletion of ecological resources.

§ A comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy formed by the government in 2003 can be considered as an achievement of the movements like NBA.

§ NBA used every available democratic strategy to put forward its demands like, Dharna, Gherao, Rasta Roko, Jail Bharo Aandolan, Bhook Hartal etc.

Silent Valley Movement

§ After the announcement of imminent dam construction on Kuntipuzha River, as an ideal site for electricity construction “Save silent valley” movement was started in 1973.

§ Kerala Sasthra Sahitya Parishad effectively aroused the public opinion to save silent valley. This environmental movement aimed at the protection of silent valley an evergreen forest in the Palakkad district Kerala.

§ The protesters were successful in 1985, when the then PM Rajiv Gandhi inaugurated silent valley National Park and the park was designated as the core area of Nilgiri Biosphere Deserve.

Fisheries Movement

§ Both in the eastern and the western coastal area of our country hundreds of thousands of families, belonging indigenous fishermen communities are engaged in fishing occupation.

§ The livelihood of these fishermen worker was threatened, when the government permitted entry of mechanized trawlers and technologies like bottom trawling for large scale harvest of fish in the Indian seas.

§ To protect their interests and livelihood, the fishermen came together on a national level platform as a National Fish workers Forum.

§ NFF achieved their first success against Indian government‟s move to open the entry of commercial vessels including of MNCs in deep sea.

§ In July 2002, NFF called for a nationwide strike to oppose the move of government to issue licenses to foreign trawlers as well.

Dalit Movements

§ After Independence, the Dalit Movement sought social justice and dignity and they attempted to build electoral majorities on a certain type of caste mobilization.

§ The Term “Dalit” encompasses the communities known as ex-untouchables & tribals who are officially termed as SC & STs respectively. Ghanshyam Shah classified Dalit Movement into:

§ Reformative: it tries to reform the caste system to solve the problem of untouchability.

§ Alternative: it attempts to create an alternative socio-cultural structure by conversion to some other religion or by acquiring education, economic status and political power.

§ In almost all Dalit movements, issue of reservations has been an overriding phenomenon & is seen as the most decisive tool of progress.

§ The Bhopal Declaration (2002) adopted unanimously a new 21 point Action Agenda for Dalits for the 21^st century. Some of the important points are:

§ Recognize SC & ST women as distinct category of women.

§ Make the reservation quota applicable in all public & private educational institutions from primary to technological, professional levels.

§ Implement effectively in letter and spirit the SC & ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.

§ Implement the policy of reservation to SC & STs at all levels of Judiciary and the Defence forces.

1980s saw the rise of political organisation of the Dalits. In 1978, the Backward and Minority Classes Employees Federation was formed. It took a strong position in favour of political power to the bahujan – the SC, ST, OBC, and minorities. The prominent face of this movement was by Kanshi Ram.

OBC Movements

§ Other Backward Classes are these who are as deprived as the SCs but without the stigma of untouchability.

§ The Kaka Kalelkar Commission appointed by the Government of India, identified more than 3000 castes or communities as OBC in 1956.

§ The Mandal Commission (1980) calculated that 52% of the population including non Hindus constitutes OBCs.

§ Mandal Commission was set up in 1978 by Govt. of India to investigate the extent of educational & social backwardness among various sections of Indian Society & recommend ways of identifying these backward classes.

§ Mandal Commission found that backward caste had a very low presence in both educations institutions & in employment in public services.

§ Hence it recommended reservations of seats in educations institutions and government job for these groups.

§ Mandal Commission also made many other recommendations like land reforms, to improve the conditions of the OBCs.

§ After a decade, in 1990, National Front Government decided to implement one of the recommendations of Commission pertaining to reservations for OBCs in jobs at central government & its undertakings.

§ This decision sparked agitations and violent protests in many cities of North India.

§ Supreme Court in 1992 gave a ruling upholding the decision of the government reiterating that reservation percentage cannot exceed 50% and “Creamy Layer” to be excluded from Reservation benefits.

§ Almost all commissions, except the Rane Commission in Gujarat (1983), used Social, educational and economic critieria for identifying „backwardness‟.

New Farmers Movement

§ The farmer‟s movements burst onto the National political stage in 1980 with the road and rail roko agitation in Nasik led by Sharad Joshi.

§ Sharad Joshi articulated the ideology of the movement in terms of India V/s Bharat, industrial V/s rural.

§ New Farmers Movement especially in 1980s have attracted much media and political attention and focused mainly on -

§ demanding remunerative prices for agricultural produce

§ lowering or elimination of government dues such as canal water charges, electricity charges, interest rates and principal of loans, etc.

Civil Democratic Movement

§ The 1960‟s were a period of political uncertainty as the conflict with the ruling class got sharpened and there were signs of mass revolt.

§ The increasing arbitrariness of state behavior was the main provocation for the democratic rights movement.

§ The main propeller of growth of Civil liberties movement was declaration of Emergency which suspended the fundamental freedoms guaranteed in the Part III of the constitution.

Two major Delhi based organizations, namely the People‟s Union for Civil Liberties & People‟s Union for Democratic Rights started working for people‟s democratic rights.

Till today these organizations are working in the interest of the vulnerable and deprived sections of the society and taking their cause on their behalf in the judiciary.

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