Chapter-1

PARTS OF INDIAN DANCE FORMS

v Classical Dances of India

Classical Dances in India, are also known as Shastriya Nritya. Its an umbrella term for all those dance forms which have evolved as part of the Dance forms mentioned in Natyashahtra written by Bharatamuni . The Natya Shastra is the foundational treatise for classical dances of India. Indian Classical dances and music were not only seen as ways to celebrate, but also as offerings of worship and thanks giving to the deity. Natyashastra contains discussions regarding differentkinds ofemotions, kinds of attires, the stages, the ornamentation, and the audience. The classical dances include music and recitation in local language or Sanskrit, and thus representing a homogenous unity of core ideas in a diversity of styles, costumes and expression. Dance and performance arts, in the ancient texts, are expressed as a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures. Natya Shastra describes religious arts as a form as marga, or a "spiritual traditional path" that liberates the soul, while the folk entertainment is called desi, or a "regional popular practice"

Natyashastra complete compilation estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE. The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. The book of Natyashastra describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (Shiva), the theory of rasa, of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures – all of which are part of Indian classical dances.

According to Natyashastra, Brahma the creator of Universe created Drama. The following components were taken from each veda and a fifth veda was created

Pathya ( Words ) – RIG VEDA Abhinaya ( Gesture ) – YAJURVEDA

Geeta ( Music and Chants) – SAMAVEDA Rasa(SentimentandEmotionalelement)–ATHARVAVEDA

`Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultures have shown abundant evidence of knowledge of Dance.. The rock

painting of Mesolithic period is found in Adamgarh, Bhimbetka of Madhya Pradesh

and

Pratapgarh,

Mirzapur of Rajasthan,

related to Dancing, hunting, burial ceremony etc. The first and earliest sculptural evidence of a dance form dates to the discovery if the Bronze figurine of a dancing girl from the Indus Valley Civilisation of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. 'Indus dancing girl', represents a stylistically poised female figure performing a dance. The forward thrust of the left leg and backwards tilted right, the gesture of the hands, demeanour of the face and uplifted head, all speak of absorption in dance, perhaps one of those early styles that combined drama with dance, and dialogue with body-gestures.

Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikeshwara , Abhinaba Bharati by Abhinavagupta, Natya Darpana by Ramachandra and Guna Chandra are other ancient and medieval Sanskrit dance-drama related texts that further discuss and expand on the classical repertoire of performance arts. The Natya Shastra mentions four Pravrittis (traditions, genres) of ancient dance-drama in vogue when it was composed – Avanti (Ujjain, central), Dakshinatya (south), Panchali (north, west) and Odra-Magadhi (Odisha-Bihar- Bengal, east). Sangeet Natak Akademi and the Ministry of Culture recognise eight classical dance forms as ―Classical Dances‖ . They are

Bharat natyam

Sattriya Kuchipu

di

Kathak Classical Kathakali

Dances

Manipuri Mohiniat

tam

Odissi

Among the 8 recognised dances five classical dances are considered to be the mystic manifestations of the metaphysical element of nature ( Panchatatva ) in the human body. These include

· Odissi ( The element of Water )

· Kuchipudi( The elementofearth)

· Mohiniattam(Theelementofair)

· Bharatnatyam ( The element of fire )

· Kathakali ( The element of sky or ether )

v PARTS OF INDIAN DANCEFORMS

Bharatamuni‟sNatyashahtraclassifiesdanceformsintotwo major types

· Tandava ( The Masculine )

· Lasya ( The Femine)

Tandava form of dance is the masculine aspect of classical dance. Tandava symbolizes the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction, as well as the daily rhythm of birth and death. Its emphasis is on the rhythm and movement aspect of the dance. Tāṇḍava nṛtya is the divine dance performed by the hindu god shiva .This dance form involves expressions reflecting Courage (Veerta), Extreme anger (Roudra), Hatred (Vibhatsa), Enjoyment (Anand) and Anger born out of grief and sympathy (Karuna Janit Krodh).

Lasya form of dance is the Feminine aspect of classical dance form. Lasya denotes grace, bhava and abhinaya. Lasya is symbolic of the feminine features of the dance forms. The dance is extremely soft in movements and shringarik in expressions and this is performed more effectively by female dancers

According to the Abhinaya Darpanam, the Sangitaratnakara and other medieval treatises, dance is divided into three distinct categories.

Nritta

Nritta corresponds to pure dance steps performed rhythmically. Here the movements of the body do not convey any mood or meaning and its purpose is just creating beauty by making various patterns, lines in space and time. According to Abhinaya Darpanam, 'Bhaavabhinayaheenam tu nrittmityabhdheeyate', that is, that dance which does not relate to any Psychological State (bhaava) is called nritta.

Natya

Natya corresponds to drama. Natya means dramatic representation or drama with speech, music and dancing. According to Abhinaya Darpanam,'Naatyam tannaatakam chava pujyam purvakathaayutam', that is Natya or Nataka which has some traditional story for its theme is an adorable (art).

Nritya

Nritya corresponds to the mime performed to the song. That is in other words, it is the Interpretative dance. The vaachikaabhinaya of natya where the actors themselves use speech, is replaced by the music and song which accompanies dance. According to

Abhinaya Darpanam, 'Rasabhaavavyanjanaadiyuktam nruttamitiryate, etannnrutyam mahaaraajsabhaayaam kalpayet sadaa', that is, that dance which relates to Sentiment (rasa) and Psychological Staes (bhaava) is called nritya.

The Rasa

The rasa theory is mentioned in the 6th chapter of the ancient text Natya Shastra written by Bharatamuni. but its most complete exposition in drama, songs and otherperformance arts

is found in the works of the Kashmiri Shaivite philosopher Abhinavagupta in the book

Abhinava Bharati. the concept of rasa is fundamental to many forms of Indian arts including dance, music, theatre, painting, sculpture, and literature. According to the Rasa theory of the Natya Shastra, entertainment is a desired effect of performance arts but not the primary goal, and that the primary goal is to transport the individual in the audience into another parallel reality, fullofwonderandbliss, where he

experiences the essence of his own consciousness, and reflects on spiritual and moral questions.

According to rasasutra Rasa is produced fromacombination of Determinants (vibhava),

Consequents (anubhava) and

Transitory States (vyabhicaribhava).

Bharata Muni articulated the eight Rasas in the Nātyasāstra as a sentiment or emotion evoked in each member of the audience by the art and the artist. The Natya Shastra mentions six rasa in one section, but in the dedicated section on rasa it states and discusses eight primary rasa

· Shringara Related to love, eros (Śṛngāra, ा र)

· HasyaHumorous, comic (Hāsya, ह )

· Bibhatsya Pathetic, disgust (Bībhatsa, बीभ )

· Raudra Fury, anger (Raudra, रौ )

· Karuna Compassion, sympathy (Kāruṇya, क )

· Veera Heroic (Vīra, वीर)

· Bhayanaka Terrible, horrifying (Bhayānaka, भय नक)

· Adbutha Marvellous, amazing (Adbhuta, अद् भुत)

· Shantha Peace , Tranquility ( Shanta, श ा ा त

Expressing Rasa in classical Indian dance form is referred to as

Rasa-abhinaya.

MUDRA

Mudras are the most striking features of the Indian Dance form. Mudras are a combination of hand gestures and body postures. Mudras are a form of Speaking in dance via gestures, rather than orally, in order to visually convey outer events or things, as well as inner feelings.

The Abhinaya Darpana the treatise of Indian dance forms by Nandikeshwara is a descriptive primmer for dancers. It mentions that the dancer should sing the song by the throat, express the meaning of the song through hand gestures, show the state of feelings inthe song by eyes, and express the rhythm with his or her feet.

Bharata‟s Natya Shastra, Highlites the importance of Mudras with the following quotation whose translation is oftenquoted by Indian classical dance instructors:

"Yato hastastato drishtihi"..."Where the hand is, the eyes follow" "Yato drishtistato manaha"..."Where the eyes go, the mind follows" "Yato manastato bhavaha"..."Where the mind is, there is the feeling"

"Yato bhavastato rasaha"..."Where there is feeling, there is mood/flavour, sweetness (i.e., appreciation of art; aesthetic bliss)"

Two classifications of specific traditional 'MUDRA' (hand/finger gesture) are used in Indian Classical Dance, and indeed are a prominent part of the dancer's vocabulary.

· Asamyukta Hasta( Single Hand Gestures)

· Samyukta Hasta( Double Hand Gestures )

There are approximately fifty-five root mudras (hand/finger gestures) that are used to clearly communicate specific ideas, events, actions, or creatures in which thirty-two require only one hand, and are classified as

`Asamyukta Hasta', along with twenty-three other primary mudras which require both hands and are classified as 'Samyukta Hasta. In the present form, there

are 108 mudras/gestures which are used to depict different emotions in Indian Dances.

v INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE FORMS

BHARATANATYAM

Bharatanaytamderives its name fromthe sage Bharata who wrotethe AncienttextNatya Shastra. Historiansalsoattribute

the word Bharata is a mnemonic, consisting of "bha"–"ra"–"ta". According

to this

belief, bha stands or bhava (feelings, emotions), rastands

for raga (melody, framework for musical notes), and ta stands for tala (rhythm). The term

Natyam is a Sanskrit word for

Devadasi circa 18th Century

"dance". The compound word Bharatanatyamthus

connotes a dance which harmoniously

expresses "bhava, raga and tala". The dance form is also known as Sadir Nattam. The dance form has been associated with the Devadasi traditions of Ancient and Medieval Indian and it was the Devadasis who are believed to have kept the dance form alive . Hence the dance form is also known as dasi-attam. In the early 19th century, the famous Tanjavur Quartet, under the patronage of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjavur are said to have been responsible for the repertoire of Bharatnatyam dance as we see it today.

History

Bharatanatyam as a dance form is considered to be over 2000 years. The Theoritical foundations of Bharatanatyam are traced to the ancient Sanskrit text Natyashastra written by Bharatamuni. The existence of this dance form is mentioned in the Ancient Tamil epic Silappatikaram written in 2nd century CE. Silappatikaram, includes a story of a dancing girl named

Madhavi while describing the dance training regimen called Arangatrau Kathai of Madhavi Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikeshwara is the main source of textual material, study of

the technique and the grammar of the body movement in Bharatnatyam. Numerous Ancient paintings and metal sculptures are also a source of understanding this Dance form. Most prominent illustrative examples are the sculptural carvings on Chidambaram Temple Gopurams which provide a great deal of visual evidence of this dance form. The arms of Shiva in the Tandava Natya as seen in the Nataraja avatara express mudras (symbolic hand gestures), that are found in Bharatanatyam. Inmanyothertemples,

Rukmini Devi Arundale

eg movement and the Karana

the charis and karana of the dance are represented in sculpture and one can

make a study of the dance form. The Chari is one-l is two-leg movements.

The dance form due to its association to the Devadasi tradition was banned by the early 1900s due to stereotyping and dehumanization of temple dancers. At the end of Devadasi system, Classical art revivalist E Krishna Iyer initiated the revival of this dance form. American dancer Esther Sherman moved to India in 1930, learnt Bharatanatyam, changed her name to Ragini Devi, and joined the movement to save and revive Bharatanatyam and other ancient dance arts. By the 20th century Rukmini Devi Arundale and Balasaraswati Devi championed the revival of Bharatanatyamand establishing Kalakshetra as an arts

and cultural academy dedicated to the preservation of Bharatanatyam and other classical art forms.

Features

The main features of the Bharatanatyam are the movements conceived in space mostly either along straight lines or triangles. The dancer appears to weave a series of triangles besides several geometrical pattern. The Tanjavur Quartet ( Chinnaiah, Ponniah, Vadivelu and Shivanandam) established the modern elements of Bharatnatyam Recital in late 18th century in the court of Raja Serforji II of Tanjavur and Maharaja Swati Thirunal of Travancore.

The traditional Bharatanatyamperformance follows aseven-part order of presentation. This set of items are called 'margam'

Alarippu

Alarippu involves rhythmic invocation (vandana) god the spiritual power. It is a pure dance, which combines a thank you and benediction for blessings from the gods and goddesses, the guru and the gathered performance team.

Jatiswaram

Jatiswaram adds melody to the movement of Alarippu. The dance remainsaprelim technicalperformance, composed ofadavus( the base unit of Dance) pure in form and without any expressed words. The drums set the beat, of any Carnatic music raga (melody). Dancer performs a sequence (Korvai) to the rhythm of the beat, presenting to the audience the unity of music, rhythm and movements. The movements will not convey any meaning or theme

Shabdam

Shabdam is the dramatic element which includes Abhinaya in the song. The dancer, the vocalist(s) and the musical team, in this stage of the production, present short compositions, with words and meaning, in a spectrum of moods

Varnam

Varnam marks the arrival into the sanctum sanctorum core of the performance. Its a combination of dance and emotion with taal and raag. The artist presents the play or the main

composition, revealing in all her movements, silently communicating the text through codified gestures and footwork, harmoniously with the music, rhythmically punctuated. Varnam is the benchmark to judge the talent of the dancer to perform both abinaya and nritta

Padam.

Padam is the stage of reverence, of simplicity, of abhinaya (expression) of the solemn spiritual messageor

devotional religious prayer. This stage consists of lighter music emotional dance sequence and intimate chanting. The choreography attempts to express the rasa and a mood.

Jawwali

Jawwali are short love lyric performance. They generally contain compositions of Geeta Govindam an extremely romantic composition written by Jayadeva. Jawwali describes the love of Krishna and Radha.

Thillana

Thillana is the climax part of the performance. It closes out the nritya portion, the movements exit the temple of expressive dance, returning to the nritta style, where a series of pure movement and music are rhythmically performed. There with the performance ends with exuberant movement and intricate rhythmic variations.

Costume

The costume of Bhartnatyam dancer resembles the costume of a tamil hindu bride. t consists of a tailor fitted brilliantly colored Sari, with a special pleated cloth stitched that falls in front and opens like a hand

Costume of Bharatanatyam Dancer

fanwhenshe flexes her knees or performs footwork. The Sari is

worn in a special way, wrapping the back and body contour tightly, past one shoulder and its end then held by a jewelry belt at the waist.

Dancer‟s fingers and feet outlines are partially colored red with kumkum powder, a costume tradition that helps the audience more easily view her hand gestures. Dancer‟s ankles, are wrapped with one or more padded leather anklets ( Ghungroos ) . Her hair is tied up in the traditional way, often braided in with fragrant flowers (veni ). Dancer‟s face has conventional makeup; eyes lined and ringed by collyrium which help viewers see her eye expressions.

Jewellery

Bharatnatyam Jewellery sets are made with dark green & dark maroon –red, quality called kempu stones, also known as temple jewellery. The traditional temple kempu jewellery are the designs worn by Maharanis or Devadasis in the ancient times. In the recent times they have become fashionable to be worn for wedding, occasions and Indian dance forms like Bharatanatyam, and Kuchupudi . The stones are un-cut polished stones in red& green. A jewellery belt adorns her waist while musical anklets called ghunghru made of leather straps with small metallic bells attached to it are wrapped in her ankles. Her feet and fingers are often brightened with henna colour so as to highlight gestures of her hands.

Instruments and Music

The Bharatnatyam dancer is accompanied by a nattuvanar (or taladhari) that is a vocalist who generally conducts the whole performance, a part often executed by the guru. The person can also play the cymbals or any other instrument. The music associated with Bharatanatyam is in South India‟s Carnatic style and instruments played comprise of cymbals, the flute, a long pipe horn called nadaswaram, a drum called mridangam and veena. The verses recited during performance are in Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada and Telugu.

Current Proponents

The four Nattuvanars namely Ponaiyah, Vadivelu, Sivanandam and Chinnaiya who are renowned as

Tanjaore Quatret and who thrived in the Durbar of Maratha ruler, Sarfoji-II from 1798 to 1832 shaped up the modern day

Bharatanatyam. Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, a dance guru from the village of Pandanallur was a noted exponent of Bharatanatyam who is predominantly known for his style referred as the Pandanallur school of Bharatanatyam. One of his students Rukmini Devi championed and performed the Pandanallur (Kalakshetra) style and also remained one of the leading proponents of the classical dance revival movement. Balasarswati who was regarded as child prodigy by Vidhwans and Pandits also joined hands in reviving the dance form. She was a virtuoso of the Thanjavur style of Bharatanatyam. Other imminent Bharatanatyamartists include Mrinalini Sarabhai,

her daughter Mallika Sarabhai, Padma Subramanyam, Alarmel Valli, Yamini Krishnamurthy and Anita Ratnam among others.

KUCHIPUDI

Kuchipudi is a dance-drama performance art, with its roots in the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text of Natya Shastra. The dance form developed as a religious art linked to traveling bards, temples and spiritual beliefs, like all major classical dances of

India. It is believed that Tirtha Narayana Yati – a sanyassin of Advaita Vedanta persuasion,and his disciple an

orphan named Siddhendra Yogi founded and systematized the modern version of Kuchipudi in the 17th century. Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. It is about 35 km. from Vijayawada. Andhra has a very long tradition of dance-drama which was known under the generic name of Yakshagaana. The name Kuchipudi is shortened form of

the full name Kuchelapuram or Kuchilapuri. Ragini Devi, opines that the name derived from Sanskrit Kusilava-puram, which means "the village of actors".Kusilava is a term found in ancient Sanskrit texts and refers to "traveling bard, dancer, newsmonger"

History

Kuchipudi is perhaps the only Indian classical dance which derives its name from a place. It is said that Nawab of Golconda, Abul Hasan Tana Shah once happened to witness the Kuchipudi Bhagavatam; and was so pleased that he granted the entire villageofKuchipuditothe Bhagavathulu(TheBrahmins).This event is inscribed on a copper plate which symbolised authority and perpetuality.

The dance-drama tradition of Kuchipudi is of ancient origins, with its principles mentioned in the Natya Shastra. Bharata Muni credits a graceful movement to Andhra region and discusses it as Kaishiki vritti. The pre-2nd century CE text calls one raga as Andhri, that is from Andhra. The Andhri, is related to Gandhari and Arsabhi, and is discussed in many other 1st millennium Sanskrit texts.

The art form is inspired by the musical and dancing Bhakti traditions of Vaishnavism which grew in the 2nd millennium, whose devotees were called Bhagvatulus in Andhra region and

Bhagvatars in Tamil region of south India. The modern version

of Kuchipudi is attributed to Tirtha Narayanayati, a 17th- century Telugu sanyasin of Advaita Vedanta persuasion and particularly his disciple, a Telugu Brahmin orphan named

Sidhyendra Yogi. Tirtha Narayanayati authored Sri Krishna Leela Tarangini and introduced sequences of rhythmic dance

syllables at the end of the cantos, he wrote this work as a libretto for a dance- drama. Narayanayati lived for a while in the Tanjore district and presented the dance-drama in the Tanjore temple.

Features

A Kuchipudi performance traditionally is a night performance. when rural families return from their farms and are free of their daily work. It has been performed in or next to a Hindu temple, and the stage lit by the yellow lights of castor oil burning torches.The dance-drama begins with an invocation

(melavimpu, puvaranga). This may be an on stage prayer to Ganesha, the Hindu god of good beginnings, or may be an invocation expressing reverence to various Hindu gods, goddesses, earth, or one's guru (teacher).

The conductor of the performance enters and plants an "Indra's banner" staff, then introduces all the actors and the characters they play, who are revealed behind a curtain, and when each actor arrives, colored resin is thrown into the flame of one or more torches for dramatic color effects and audience's attention. Each actor

performs a short dance called thePravesa

Daru accompanied by a short musical piece, as

the vocalist describes his or her role. The conductor

is typically present.

To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over their bodies, techniques likedancing

on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the

head was introduced. Acrobatic dancing became part of the repertoire. By the middle of this century, Kuchipudi fully crystallized as a separate classical solo dance style. Thusthere

are now two forms of Kuchipudi; the traditional musical dance-drama and the solo dance.

From the later part of the fourth decade of this century a sequence of the presentation of the solo recital has been widely accepted. A recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as isdone

in some other classical dance styles. Earlier the invocation was limited to Ganesha Vandana. Now other gods are also invoked. It is followed by nritta, that is, non- narrative and abstract dancing. Usually jatiswaram is performed as the nritta number. Next is presented a narrative number called shabdam. One of the favourite traditional shabdam number is the Dashaavataara. The Shabdam is followed by a natya number calledKalaapam.

Many Kuchipudi dancers prefer to perform entry of Satyabhama from the traditional dance-drama Bhaamaakalaapam. The song

"bhamane, satyabhamane, the traditional praveshadaaru (the song that is rendered at the time of the entry of a character) is so tuneful that its appeal is universal and ever fresh. Next in the

sequence comes a pure nrityaabhinaya number based on literary-cum musical forms like padam, jaavli, shlokam, etc. In

such a number each of the sung words is delineated in space through dance, drishya-kavita (visual poetry). A Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam. Excerpts of Krishna- leela-tarangini are sung with this number. In this the dancer usually stands on a brass plate locking the feet in shakatavadanam paada and moves the plate rhythmically with great dexterity.

Gollakalapam, which is hardly performed today has a shepherd girl, Golla- Bhama as its protagonist. Gollabhama expounds an elaborate philosophical discourse, right from the beginning of creation to the salvation of a human soul. That which is profound is communicated dramatically. There is also an occasional humorous character (hasyagadu) introduced in the performance.

Costume and Jewellery

The traditional Kuchipudi was performed by all males troupe. A dancer in a male role would be in Angivastra, also known as Bagalbandi, wear a dhoti (a single pleated piece of cloth

hanging down from the waist).. A dancer in a female role would wear a Sari with light makeup. Modern productions although retain the largely male attire, elaborate and Bharatanatyam-like costumes are made for the

emale. Women ar

f tists wear a brilliantly colorful Sari (or a body fitting dress) with a pleated fan stitched in front to help highlight the exacting footwork.

The end

of the wrapped Sari is held fast under a light metallic (golden or brass) belt at waist. A Kuchipudi artist braids her hair somewhat differently than a Bharatanatyamartist,

to reflect the regional traditions, yet wearing flowers are common. Both have symbolic elements embedded in their hair and face

jewelry, such as the Vedic symbolisms for the sun and the moon, the soul and the nature, and she sometimes sets her hairdo in the tribhuvana style which represents the three worlds

Instruments and Music

The Kuchipudi performance is led by a conductor (chief musician) called the Sutradhara or Nattuvanar, who typically keeps the beat using cymbals and also recites the musical syllables; the conductor may also sing out the story or spiritual

message being enacted, or this may be a role of a separate vocalist or occasionally the dancer-actors themselves. The

Kuchipudi orchestra ensemble includes a drummer (mridangam), a clarinetist andaviolinist. Dependingonthe

legend being danced out, other musicians such as a flutist may bepresent.Titti(a wind instrument) is used for Sruti(pitch) and maddela(percussion) and cymbals for rhythm

Current Proponents

Vempati Chinna Satyam is one of the leading exponents of Kuchipudi, along with Vedantam Lakshmi Narayana Shastry who have worked hard to restore this art form and bring it back to prominence. Vempati is responsible for setting up Kuchipudi Art Academy in Chennai – the oldest dance school in this dance India.

Raja and Radha Reddy stand tall on the highest stage of Kuchipudi dance style today. The unique art of Raja and Radha Reddy found befitting official recognition through the award of the PADMA SHREE in 1984, the Sahitya Kala Parishad Award in 1990 and the prestigious Sangeet Natak Award in 1992. They have also had the honour of being awarded with

the 2nd highest civ

ilian award in India, the Padma Bhushan award of the new millennium, individually but simultaneously in the year 2000.

Ragini Devi, an American was the first woman to have learnt Kuchipudi. Her guru was chinta Venkataramiah in the 1930s. Indrani Rehman, her daughter popularisedkuchipudi on the national and International scene. Yamini Krishnamurthy, Sumathy Kaushal and Uma Rama Rao, are also master in this art form.

Interesting Facts and Comparisons

On 16th December 2016, 6,117 Kuchipudi Dancers performed a spectacular

„Mahabrinda Natyam‟ show, creating a new Guinness World Record. The record-creating entry is “Jayamu Jayamu,” „Jayamu Jayamu‟, is considered a rich example of Kuchipudi, choreographed by the legendary Vempati China Satyam. The dancers were from various age groups: as young as 5 to more than 60 years old. These Dancers from across the country were joined by those from U.S., Dubai, U.K., Russia, Hong Kong and Mauritius. Dancers of Chinese origin who had learnt the form came from Hong Kong.

Kuchipudi dancers earlier wielded a lot of power, and a play/ social commentary was performed to highlight the unfair treatment of a king in 1502, against abusive practices. The dancers succeeded and even got the help of the army.

On December 26, 2010, over 2,800 dancers including 200 plus dance teachers, created a Guinness World record at Hyderabad. This amazing event was performed by dancers in over 15 countries and was for 11 minutes.

This is a unique dance form as it makes use of four Abhinayas namely, Angika, Vachika, Aharya and Satvica respectively.

Rumya Sree Putcha, a scholar provides an analysis of this traditional dance in Indian cinema, in her doctoral dissertation

„Revisiting the classical: A critical history of Kuchipudi dance‟.

KATHAKALI

History

Kathakali , is an art which has evolved from many social and religious theatrical forms whichexisted in the southernregionin ancient times.

Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam

andRamanattam are few of the ritual performing arts of Kerala

which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its form and technique. Legend has it that the refusal of the Zamorin of Calicut to send his Krishnattam troupe to Travancore, so enraged the Raja of Kottarakkara, that he was inspired to compose the Ramanattam.

Kathakali evolved as an independent art form for over four centuries. During its development it has incorporated several elements from the classical Sanskrit theatre and folk art forms like Mudiyettu, Thiyattu, Theyyam and Padayani. Kerala‟s renowned martial arts system Kalaripayattu contributed the fitness techniques and exercise system with vigorous and defined movements, which gradually became Kathakali‟s own aesthetics. In the temple sculptures in Kerala and the frescoes in the Mattancheri temple of approximately the 16th century, dance scenes depicting the square and rectangular basic positions so typical to Kathakali are seen. For body movements and choreographical patterns, Kathakali is also indebted to the early martial arts of Kerala.

Kathakali‟s growth is intertwined with the development of Malayalam as a distinct literary tradition and the increased popularity of the Bhakti movement in Kerala. The eleventh century composition of Jayadeva – Geeta Govindham provided the source material for the performers of Kathakali , particulary 8 poems of Geeta Govindham known as Ashtapadis, inspiring the repertoire– Ashtapadiattam.

Inspired by the Geetagovindam, in 1654 Manavedan Raja of Kozikode composed a series of eight dance dramas known as Krishnanaattam. This art form was an adaptation of

Astapadiattam, and was inspired by the acting techniques, gestures, costumes and make up of Koodiyattam. Similarly, its lyrics were in classical Sanskrit and it still continues to be staged at the Koothambalam (dance stage within the temple) of Guruvayoor temple. The prince of Kottarakkara requested Manavedan Raja to allow his Krishnanaattam troop to perform at his palace. When this request was denied, the prince composed and produced his own version consisting of eight plays presenting the theme of Ramayana, which came to be known as Ramanaattam. The actors were trainined, rehearsals were held, and the premier performance with rich costumes and makeup was held in the Kottarakkara palace.

There is no language barrier in Kathakali – opening slokas are in Sanskrit while narratives in Manipravalam, and later in Malayalam, continue throughout the performance. From the beginning Kathakali was performed outside the temple walls and was accessible to many, if not all.

Both royal and Namboothiri ( Kerala Brahmin) patronage facilitated the growth and consolidation of Kathakali as a distinct performance tradition. Kartika Tirunal of Tiruvithamcore, Veera Kerala Varma of Kochi, and later Manakkulam Valiya Kunjunni Raja brought their artistic and financial patronage to the refinement of Kathakali. They were also composers of Kathakali music. Both performers and connoisseurs focused on refining techniques, music, makeup and costumes. Unnayi Variar, through his composition of Nalacharitam elevated Kathakali to the frontiers of dramatics. Kaplingaattu

Namboothiri, a great innovator, introduced numerous pioneering changes; establishment of Hastalakshanadipika, the Sanskrit manual of gestures, as the source book for Kathakali mudras being an important one.

Features

Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics. It is a stylised art form, the four aspects of abhinaya

- angika, aharya,vachika, satvika and

the nritta, nritya and natya aspects are

combined perfectly. The dancer expresses himself through codified hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses(padams) that are sung.

Kathakali derives its textual

sanction from Balarama Bharatam and Hastalakshana Deepika.

The attakkathasor stories are selected from the epics and myths and are written in a highly Sanskritised verse form in Malayalam. Many Malayalam writershavealsocontributed tothe

vast repertoire of Kathakali literature. Kathakali is a visual art where aharya, costume and make-up are suited to the characters, as per the tenets laid down in the Natya Shastra.

TMhEEeRUcTharacters are grouped under certain clearly defined types

like the pacha, kathi, thadi, kari or minukku. The face of the artist is painted over to appear as though a mask is worn.

The lips, the

Make up of Thadi

eyelashes and the

eyebrows are made to lookprominent. Amixture of rice paste and lime is applied to

make the

chutti on the face

whichhighlightsthefacial make- up. Kathakalidance

is chiefly interpretative. The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly divided into satvika, rajasika and tamasika types. Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined. In pacha, green colour dominates and kirita (headgear) is worn by all. Krishna and Rama wear special crowns decorated with peacock feathers. The noblecharacters like Indra, Arjun and the Devas are some of the pacha characters. The

kathi type depict anti-heroes. Though they are of the rajasika

category, they are sometimes great warriors and scholars such as Ravana, Kamsa and Sisupala to name a few. The moustache and

the small knob called chuttippu fixed on "the tip of the nose and another in the centre of the forehead, is peculiar to the kathi character. The characters of the thadi (beard) category are the chuvanna thadi, (red beard), vellathadi (white beard) and the

karutha thadi (black beard). Vellathadi or the white bearded character is generally that of Hanuman, the dancer also wears the costume ofmonkey. Kari are characters whose make-up have a blackbase, theywear black costume depicting a hunter or forest dweller. Apart from these,there are

minor characters like minukku which are the women and sages. Kathakali costumes

and make-up are elaborate and designed so as to give a super human effect. The make-up of Kathakali can be classified into the teppu, chuttikuthu and uduthukettu. The teppud done by

the actor himself. Each character has a distinct teppu. The

second stage is done by experts who specialise in make-up. The wearing of huge bellowing skirts is called uduthukettu. A simple stage is used. A large oil-fed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two people hold a curtain called Tirasseela on the stage, the main dancers stand behind it before the performance. In no other dance style is the entire body used so completely as in Kathakali. The technical details cover every part of the body from facial

muscles to fingers, eyes, hands and wrists. The facial muscles play an important part. The movement of the eyebrows, the eye- balls and the lower eye-lids as described in the Natya Shastra are not used to such an extent in any other dance style. Theweight

of the body is on the outer edges of the feet which are slightly bent and curved. Kalasams are pure dance sequences where the actor is at great liberty to express himself and display his skills. The leaps, quick turns, jumps and the rhythmic co-ordination

make kalasams, a joy to watch.

A Kathakali performance begins with the kelikottu, calling the audience to attention followed by the todayam. It is a devotional number performed where one or two characters invoke the blessings of the gods. Kelikottu is the formal announcement of the performance done in the evening when drums and cymbals

are played fora while in the courtyard. Apure nritta piece known

as the purappadu comes as a sequel to this. Then the musicians and drummers hold the stage entertaining the audience with an exhibition of

their skills in melappada. Tiranokku is the debut on the stage of all characters other than the pacha or minukku. Thereafter, the play or the

particular scene of the chosen play begins.

The facial expressions of the artists are based on Natyashastra and are classified into navarasas or nine expressions. Actor- dancer conveys a range of emotions through his facial expressions and eye-movements. The story is interpreted by

symbolicmudras(handgestures)thatconveyawholeworldof

emotions. There are 24 basic gestures, and their various combinations form the sign language used to narrate the story. Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeet of

Kerala. It is said to be the ritual singing of the Ashtapadis on

the flight of steps leading to the sanctum sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragas-the raga and talaconforming to the bhava, rasa and dance patterns (nritta and natya). The orchestra which is also used in other traditional performing arts of Kerala, normally comprises the Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Ilathalam, Idakka and Sh ankhu.

Ilakiattam is that part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their excellence inabhinaya. For the most part of the performance the dancers engage themselves in chodiattam which means acting in strict conformity to the words in the padams sung by the accompanying musicians.

v The Costumes

Kathakali performers wear elaborate and intricate makeup and gorgeous and colorful costumes. It takes three to four hours for an actor-dancer to transform into a character. They lie on their backs and relax while makeup artists paint the colors and apply

rice paste and paper border, chutti, framing the face.

Chutti draws the attention of the audience to the performer‟s facial expressions. The costumes and makeup in Kathakali are not exclusive to each character; they are divided into six groups based on the general nature of the characters. Greenand red are predominant colors in the Kathakali makeup. Noble male

characters wear Pachcha (green) makeup. Makeup of characters with an evil streak is Kathi (knife). They have a knife-shaped

pattern on either cheek in red pigment over the base green makeup. In addition, a small white ball is fixed to the tip of the

nose and another on the forehead. Hunters and cruel characters wear black makeup called Kari. The Thaadi (beard) makeup has three variations - Evil characters such as demons wear Chuvanna Thaadi (Red Beard) - primarily red makeup and a red beard, evil and scheming characters wear Karutha Thadi (black beard); lower parts of their faces are painted black and they wear black shirts while Vella Thadi (white beard) is used to portray Hanuman. Women and ascetics have glossy, yellowish makeup - minukku. Theppu is a catch all makeup category for birds, swan, Narasimha, Kali and others.

Costumes consists of long sleeved top, yards of heavily starched underclothes wrapped around the waist to give bulk, a mid-calf length outer skirt above the underclothes, and several decorative accessories. Most male characters wear long wigs that hang behind their intricately carved large headdresses. They attach long silver fingernails on their left hands, and apply a small amount of an herb in the lower eye lid to make them red.

Female costumes are less abstract and bulbous.

Instruments and Music

In a traditional performance the two on-stage musicians, stand at the back of the stage and sing. The script is in the form of lyrics in a vocal style called Sopanam, a style of elaboration and repetition. The lead singer marks the rhythmic beat on the gong

and the other on a pair of cymbals. The percussion orchestra of drums consists of chenda, maddalam, and edakka. Chenda is played with two sticks, Edakka with one stick and Maddalam with both hands. In addition to the drums, the gong and brass

cymbals held by the singers maintain the rhythmic cycles of the performance. There are no wind or string instruments in Kathakali orchestra.

Current Proponents

Today besides Kalamandalam there are several excellent institutions for Kathakali training including Margi, PSV Natyasangham, RLV College,

Kalanilayam, Sadanam, Kalakshetra and Darpana. The International Centre for Kathakali at New Delhi has an ongoing project of producing new plays based on traditional, mythological, historical stories as well as European classics and plays. In recent years, various plays including Shakespeare‟s King Lear, Goethe‟s Faust, and Manava Vijayam (people‟s victory) were produced and staged. These experiments, though well received, have not attained the popularity of traditional plays.

Kathakali is also thriving beyond the shores of India. The David Bolland Collection at the Rose Bruford College in UK is a remarkable archive primarily devoted to Kathakali. This extensive Collection was developed and preserved over four decades and includes material dating from the 1950s and records performances by some of the finest actors and musicians. Kalamandalam Vijayakumar through his Kala Chethena Kathakali Company offers exhibitions, performances, and workshops in the UK, India, Germany, Brazil, Indonesia, Finland,

Canada and Ireland. Kathakali‟s influence on classical and folk dances of Kerala are visible in the folk dance Kaikottikali which uses many Kathakali songs for its music; and Kerala Natanam, a dance style based on Kathakali techniques developed by Guru Gopinath.

Kathakali has always adapted changes, but in a subtle way, and maintains much of its original stylized form, rich in its theatrical traditions. Though hugely male-dominated, increasingly women participate as Kathakali actors, musicians and teachers. Actor-dancers and musicians of the troupe Tripunithura Vanitha Kathakali Kendram are all females. With the introduction of electricity almost all performances are lit with larger electric lights. The oil lamp is still lit at the center of the

stage for the ritual inauguration of the performance. The modern trend is towards staging condensed versions or individual scenes from of epic plays in plush auditoriums for two to three hours. Adapting to circumstances, absorbing and assimilating changes, and evolving through innovations Kathakali fourishes as a premier classical art and continues to captivate audiences worlwide.

KATHAK

The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means a story. Kathakars or story-tellers, are people who narrate stories largely based on episodes from the epics, myths and legends. It probably started as an oral tradition.Mimeand

gestures were perhaps added later on to make the recitation more effective. Thus evolved a simple form of expressional dance, providing the origins of what later developed into Kathak aswe see it today.

The origin of Kathak is traditionally attributed to the traveling bards of ancient northern India known as Kathakars or storytellers. The term Kathak is derived from the Vedic Sanskrit word Katha which means "story",

and Kathaka which means "the one who tells a story", or "to do

with stories". Wandering Kathakas communicated stories from the great epics and ancient mythology through dance, songs and music in a manner similar to early Greek theatre. Kathak evolved during the Bhakti movement, particularly by incorporating the childhood and stories of the Hindu god Krishna, as well as independently in the courts of north Indian kingdoms. The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the 15th century and the

resultant bhakti

movement contributed to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms. The Radha-Krishna theme proved immensely popular along with the works of Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadas and Krishnadas.

History

The earliest surviving text with Kathak roots is the Natya Shastra, attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE. The 2nd century BC panels found in Bharhut show the dancers in a vertical stance with their arms' positions already suggesting today's Kathak movements. Most of the dancers have one arm near the ear in a ''pataka hasta'' (Mudra).

The Lucknow tradition of Kathak dance attributes the style to a Bhakti movement devotee named Ishwari from the Handia village in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, who credited Hindu god Krishna

appearing in his dream and asking him to develop "dance as a form of worship". Ishwari taught his descendants, who in turn preserved the learning and developments through an oral tradition over six generations ultimately yielding the Lucknow version of the Kathak dance – a family tree that is acknowledged in both Hindu and Muslim music-related Indian literature.

The Mughal era courts and nobles accepted Kathak as a form of aristocratic entertainment, which low

income families were willing to provide. However, the dance became more abstract and erotic, less as a means of communication of spiritual or religious ideas, and in cases the dancers innovated by emphasizing the eroticism and sexuality the Muslim audience wanted while keeping the message such as those of Krishna-

Radha embedded in the dance. Over

time, the Kathak repertoire added Persian and Central Asian themes, such as the whirling of Sufi dance, the costumes replaced Saris with items that bared midriff and included a transparent veil of the type common with medieval Harem dancers. When the colonial European officials began arriving in India, the Kathak court entertainment they witnessed was a synthesis of the ancient Indian tradition and Central Asian- Persian dance form, and the Kathak dance performers were

called the "nautch girls" (or natch, a derivative of the more difficult to pronounce Sanskrit natya).

Kathak along with all other classical dance forms were discouraged and it severely declined, during the Colonial Rule. The seductive gestures and facial expressions during Kathak performances in Temples and family occasions were caricatured in The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, published at the start of the 20th century, as evidence of "harlots, debased erotic culture, slavery to idols and priests" tradition, and Christian missionaries demanded that this must be stopped, launching the"anti-dance movement" or "anti-nautch movement" in1892.

Not only did missionaries and colonial officials ridicule the Kathak dancers, Indian men who had been educated in colonial Britain and had adapted to Victorian prudery joined the criticism, possibly because they had lost their cultural connection, no longer understood the underlying spiritual themes behind the dance, and assumed this was one of the "social ills, immoral and backward elements" in theirheritage thattheymuststampout.

Features

The nineteenth century saw the golden age of Kathak under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Oudh. He established the Lucknow gharana with its strong accent on

bhava, the expression of moods and emotions. The Jaipur

gharana known for its layakari or rhythmic virtuosity and the Benaras gharana are other prominent schools of Kathak dance. The technique of movement in Kathak is unique to it.

The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis. The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the ball of the foot are used, their function is limited. There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part of the body. Torso movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather than through the manipulations of the backbone or upper chest and lower waist muscles. In the basic stance, the dancer stands straight, holds one hand at a level higher than the head and the other is extended out on the level of theshoulder.

The invocation (vandana) consists of the dancer coming to stage and offering respect to his or her guru and the musicians on the stage. If the team is from the Hindu tradition, the dancer(s)

combine facial expressions and hand gestures (mudra) to invoke Hindu gods and goddesses; while a Muslim performance replace the devotional expressions with salami (salutation).

The pure dance is called a nritta, while the expressive dance is called a nritya. A Kathak performance can be solo, duo or team. In a technical performance, the speed and energy the dancers exchange with the audience increases in multiples, that is the

tempo doubles or quadruples. During the performance, one or more of the Kathak artists may come to the microphone, interact with the audience, explain something, tell an anecdote in a particular language, or rhythmically recite a song.

The technique is built by the use of an intricate system of foot- work. Pure dance (nritta) is all important where complex rhythmic patterns are created through the use of the flat feet and the control of sound of the ankle bells worn by the dancer. As in Bharatnatyam, Odissi and Manipuri, Kathak also builds its pure dance sequences by combining units of movement. The cadences are called differently by the names tukra, tora, and parana, all indicative of the nature of rhythmic patterns used and the percussion instrument accompanying the dance. The dancer commences with a sequence called That where soft gliding movements ofthe neck, eyebrows and the wrists, are introduced.

This is followed by a conventional formal entry known as the

Amad (entry) and the Salami (salutation).

Then follow the various combinations of rhythmic passages all punctuated with and culminating in a number of pirouettes. The

pirouettes are the most characteristic feature of the dance style in nritta portions. Recitation of the rhythmic syllables is common; the dancer often pauses to recite these to a specified

metrical cycle followed by execution through movement. The nritta portion of Kathak is performed to the nagma. Both the drummer (here the drum is either a pakhawaj, a type of

mridangam, or a pair of tabla) and the dancer weave endless combinations on a repetitive melodic line. The metrical cycle (tala) of 16, 10, 14 beats provides the foundation on which the whole edifice of dance is built.

In the mime portions (nritya or abhinaya), words are not used in simple numbers called the gata, which is performed in a lyricalmannertogentle rhythm. Theseareshortnarrativepieces

which portray a brief episode from Krishna's life. A poetic line set to music is interpreted with gestures in other numbers, such as the tumri, bhajan, dadra - all lyrical musical compositions. In these sections, there is a word to word or line to line

synchronisation in the same fashion as in Bharatnatyam or Odissi. Both in nritta (pure dance) and the abhinaya (mime) there is immense scope for improvisation of presenting variations on a theme. The interpretative and the abstractdancetechniques

are interwoven into each other, and the dancer's greatness lies in his capacity for improvisation on the melodic and metric line on the one hand and the poetic line on theother.

Costumes

The costumes vary among Kathak performers, and are either Hindu or Muslim. The Hindu costume for female dancers has two variations. One is based on a Sari, but is worn in a style different from the customary style that goes over the left shoulder. A

Kathak artist generally wraps the sari around the waist and it hangs down from the left. A blouse called choli covers the upper body. The artist may wear a scarf (called orhni in some places). Hair, face, ear, neck, hand, wrist and ankle jewellery, typically of gold, may adorn the artist. A tika or bindi in the middle of

forehead is common. The second variation of a Hindu Kathak dancer uses a long, full (just above the ankle), light-weight skirt usually with embroidered border that helps highlight the dance motion. The skirt is contrasted with a different color choli, and a transparent scarf typically drapes over it and the dancer's head. Jewellery is typically present in the second variation.

The Muslim c

fitting churida

ostume for female dancers also uses a skirt, but includes close

r pyjamas and sometimes a long coat covering hands and the upper body. The head has a cover scarf and the jewelry is light.

The Hindu costume for male Kathak performers is typically a silk dhoti draped around the waist,

then usually covered with a silk scarf tied on top. The upper body may be bare, show the

Hindu thread, or be covered with a loose jacket. Kathak

male artists also wear jewellery, but often of stones and much simplerthan the female artists.

Instruments

The ensemble of musical instruments vary with any Kathak performer, ranging from two to twelve classical Indian instruments or more in versions with synthetic innovations.[ The most

common instruments that go with Kathak are tabla (a pair of hand drums) that syncs with the dancer'sfeet

rhythms, sarangi or harmoni

um with manjira (hand cymbals) that meters the

tal (cycle), and other instruments to add effect,

depth and structure to the expressive stage of a Kathak performance.

Gharanas

Kathak is a diffuse tradition, of which three gharanas (schools) are more well- known and studied – Jaipur, Benares and Lucknow.

The schools place different relative emphasis between aspects of a Kathak performance such as the acting versus footwork. The Lucknow style, for example, emphasizes actingwhile Jaipur style emphasizes the dance and footwork.

Traditionally, the Jaipur gharana has had a strong spiritual flavor, covering a diverse range of ideas in Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

The Jaipur gharana traces its origins to Bhanuji, a famed Shiva Tandava dancer who upon visiting

Vrindavan was inspired and taughtNatvariNritya. Bhanuji'sgrandons Laluji and Kanhuji were similarly inspired by Krishna.

They returned to Jaipur, and together they

began the Jaipur gharana of Kathak. The Jaipur style developed under the sponsorship of Rajput rulers, and they favoured the Kathakdance with Hindu religious themes. In the modern era, this school has continued their emphasis on dance and footwork

with Jai Lal, Janki Prasad, Kundan Lal, Mohan Lal and Nawal Kishore. This school is best known for its systematic innovations in rhythmic dancing, and the use of dance movement to express a story.

The Lucknow gharana of Kathak dance attributes its origins to a rural Krishna devotee named Ishwari from the village in southeast Uttar Pradesh, who aimed to develop Kathak dance as a form of loving devotion to Krishna. This school thrived after the Mughal Empire collapsed, when Kathak artists moved from Delhi to Lucknow under the sponsorship of Avadh nawabs who favored court dance culture. In the modern era, the Lucknow gharana style influences the dance school in New Delhi with Shambu Maharaj, Birju Maharaj and Lacchu Maharaj. Kathak choreography there has developed themes beyond Krishna- Radha, such as those based on the drama works of Kalidasa's Shiva-Parvati and Bhavabhuti's Malati-Madhav. This school has also attempted a Hindu-Muslim Kathak fusion style, highlighting the court dancers theme.

The Benares gharana is the third major style, traditionally believed to be the oldest. Its history is unclear.The school probably started with Janakiprasad from a village near Bikaner who resettled in Varanasi, but one whose ancestors were famed

dancers and musicians. Janakiprasad was a dancer and a Sanskrit scholar, and credited with inventing the bols of Kathak, which are mnemonic syllables within the language of this classical dance of India.

Current Proponents

Imminent personalities associated with Kathak include among others the founders of the different gharanas or schools of this form of classical dance namely Bhanuji of the Jaipur Gharana; Janaki Prasad of the Benaras Gharana; Ishwari Prasad of the Lucknow

Pandit Birju Maharaj

Gharana; and Raja Chakradhar Singh of the Raigarh Gharana.

Shambhu Maharaj wasa

renowned guru of the Lucknow Gharana. His brothers Lachhu Maharaj and Acchan Maharaj were also stalwarts in the art of Kathak. One name that has almost become synonymous with modern day Kathak dance is Pandit Birju Maharaj, ascion of

the legendary Maharaj family and son of Acchan Maharaj. He is considered the leading advocate of the Lucknow Kalka- Bindadin gharana. Sitara Devi was another star of this dance form described as Nritya Samragini that is the empress of dance by Rabindranath Tagore and she continues to retain her Kathak Queen title even after death. Other eminent Kathak artists include Roshan Kumari, Shovana Narayan, Maya Rao and Kumudini Lakhia to name a few.

ODISSI

History

Odissa, on the eastern sea coast, is the home of Odissi, one of the many forms of Indian classical dance. Sensuous and lyrical, Odissi is a dance of love and passion touching on the divine and the human, the sublime and the mundane. The Natya Shastra mentions many regional varieties, such as the south-eastern style known as the Odhra Magadha which can be identified as the earliest precursor of present dayOdissi.

Odissi, in its history, was performed predominantly by women, and expressed religious stories and spiritual ideas, particularly of Vaishnavism (Vishnu as Jagannath). Odissi performances have also expressed ideas of other traditions such as those related to Hindu gods Shiva and Surya, as well as Hindu goddesses (Shaktism).

Archaeologicalevidenceofthisdanceformdatingbackto the 2nd

century B.C. is found in the caves of

Udayagiri and

Khandagiri near

Bhubaneshwar. Later, innumerable examples of the Buddhist sculptures, the tantric images of dancing Yoginis, the Nataraja, and othercelestial

musicians and dancers of early Shaivite temples bear testimony to a continuing tradition of dance from the 2nd century B.C.E to

the 10th century C.E. These influences found synthesis in an unique philosophy

- the dharma or faith of Jagannath.With Hinduism taking roots in Odisha by about the 7th century A.D.,

many imposing temples were erected. The magnificent Sun Temple at Konarak, built in the 13th century, with its Natya mandap or Hall of dance, marks the culmination of the temple building activity in Odisha. These dance movements, frozen in

stone, continue to inspire Odissi dancers even today.

The theoretical foundations of Odissi trace to the ancient Sanskrit text Natya Shastra, its existence in antiquityevidenced by the dance poses in the sculptures of Odissi Hindu temples, andarcheologicalsites related to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The Odissi dance tradition declined during the Islamic rule era, andwas suppressed under

the British Rule. The suppression was protested by the Indians, followed by its revival, reconstruction and expansion since India gained independence from the colonialrule.

Odissi is traditionally a dance-drama genre of performance art, where the artist(s) and musicians play out a mythical story, a spiritual message or devotional poem from the Hindu texts, using symbolic costumes, body movement, abhinaya (expressions) and mudras(gestures and sign language) set out in ancient Sanskrit literature.

Odissi is learnt and performed as a composite of basic dance motif called the Bhangas (symmetric body bends, stance). It involves lower (footwork), mid (torso) and upper (hand and head) as three sources of perfecting expression and audience

engagement with geometric symmetry and rhythmic musical resonance. An Odissi performance repertoire includes invocation, nritta (pure-dance), nritya (expressive- dance), natya (dance drama) and moksha (dance climax connoting freedom of the soul and spiritual release).

More direct historical evidence of dance and music as an ancient performance art are found in archaeological sites such as caves and in temple carvings of Bhubaneswar, Konarak and Puri. The Manchapuri cave in Udayagiri shows carvings of dance and musicians, and this has been dated to the time of Jain king Kharavela in the first or second century BCE. The Hathigumpha inscriptions, also dated to the same ruler, mention music and dance.

According to Kapila Vatsyayan, the Kalpasutra of Jainism, in its manuscripts discovered in Gujarat, includes classical Indian dance poses – such as the Samapada,

the Tribhangi and the Chuaka of

Odissi. This, states Vatsyayan, suggests that Odissiwas admired or at least well known in distant

parts of India, far from Odisha in the medieval era, to be included in the margins of an important Jain text. However, the Jain manuscripts use the dance poses as decorative art in the margins and cover, but do not describe or discuss the dance. Hindu dance texts such as the Abhinaya-Chandrika and Abhinaya- Darpana provide detailed description of the movements of the feet, hands, the standing postures, the movement and the

dance repertoire. It includes illustrations of the Karanãs mentioned in NãtyaShãstra. Similarly, the illustrated Hindu text on temple architecture from Odisha, the Shilpaprakãsha, deals with Odia architecture and sculpture, and includes Odissi postures.

During British Raj, the officials of the colonial government ridiculed the temple traditions, while Christian missionaries launched a sustained attack on the moral outrage of sensuousness of Odissi and other Hindu temple dance arts.The "anti- dance movement" was launched by British interests in 1892, to ban all Indian dance forms. The dancers were dehumanized and stigmatized as prostitutes during the British period. In 1910, the British colonial government in India banned temple dancing, and the dance artists were reduced to abject poverty from the lack of any financial support for performance arts, combined with stereotyping stigma.

The temple dance ban and the cultural discrimination during the colonial rule marshaled a movement by Hindus to question the stereotypes and to revive the regional arts of India, including Odissi. Due to these efforts, the classical Indian dances witnessed a period of renaissance and reconstruction, which gainedmomentumparticularlyafterIndiansgainedtheirfreedom from colonialism.

Odissi, along with several other major Indian dances gained recognition after efforts by many scholars and performers in the 1950s, particularly by Kavichandra Kalicharan Pattanayak, an Oriya poet, dramatist and researcher. Pattanayak is alsocredited with naming the dance form as "Odissi".

Features

Odissi, in the classical and medieval period has been, a team dance founded on Hindu texts. This drama-dance involved women (Maharis) enacting a spiritual poem or a religious story either in the inner sanctum of a Hindu temple, or in the atamandira attached to the temple. For centuries maharis were the chief repositories of this dance.

The maharis, who were originally temple dancers came to be employed in royal courts which resulted in the degeneration of the art form.

The Odissi performing Maharis combined pure dance with expression, to play out and communicate the underlying text throughabhinaya(gestures). The performance art evolved to include

another aspect, wherein teams of boys – dressed as girls – called Gotipuas expanded the Odissi repertoire, such as by adding acrobatics and athletic moves, and they performed both near the temples and open fairs for general folksy entertainment. In the Indian tradition, many of the accomplished

gotipuasbecamethegurus (teachers)

in their adulthood. Modern Odissi is a diversified performance art, men have joined the women, and its reconstruction since the 1950s have added new plays and aspects of other Indian dances.

Odissi is a highly stylised dance and to some extent is based on the classical Natya Shastra and the Abhinaya Darpana. In fact, it has derived a great deal from the Abhinaya Darpana Prakasha by Jadunatha Sinha, theAbhinaya Chandrika by Rajmani Patra, and the Abhinaya Chandrika by

Maheshwara Mahapatra. As in other parts of India, creative literature inspired the Odissi dancer also and provided the themes for

dance. This is especially true of the 12th century Gita Govinda by Jayadeva. It is a profound example of thenayaka-nayika bhava and surpasses other poems in its poetic

and stylistic content. The devotion of thepoet for Krishna permeates through the work.

The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga. The chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced. The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.

Shringara/Love is a universal theme and one of the paradigmatic values in Indian religions. This theme is expressed through

sensuous love poems and metaphors of sexual union in Krishna- related literature, and as longing eros (Shringara) in its dance arts such as in Odissi, from the early times.

Traditional Odissi repertoire sequence starts with an invocation called Mangalacharana. A shloka (hymn) in praise of a God or Goddess is sung, such as to Jagannath (an avatar of Vishnu), the meaning of which is expressed through dance. Mangalacharan is followed by Pushpanjali (offering of flowers) and Bhumi Pranam (salutation to mother earth). The invocation also includes

Trikhandi Pranam or the three-fold salutation – to the Devas

(gods), to the Gurus (teachers) and to the Lokas or Rasikas (fellow dancers and audience).

The next sequential step in an Odissi performance is Batu, also known as Battu Nrutya or Sthayee Nrutya or Batuka Bhairava. It is a fast pace, pure dance (nritta) performed in the honor of Shiva. There is no song or recitation accompanying this part of the dance,

just rhythmic music. This pure dance sequence in Odissi builds up to a Pallavi which is often slow, graceful & lyrical movements of the eyes, neck, torso & feet & slowly builds in a crescendo to climax in a fast tempo at the end.

The nritya follows next, and consists of Abhinaya, or an expressional dance which

is an enactment of a song or poetry. The dancer(s) communicate the story in a sign

language, usingmudras(hand gestures), bhavas (enacting mood,

emotions), eye and body movement. The dance is fluid, graceful and sensual. Abhinaya in Odissi is performed to verses recited

Honey BeeMudra

in Sanskrit or Odia language. Most common are Abhinayas on Oriya songs or Sanskrit

Ashthapadis or Sanskrit stutis like Dasavatar Stotram (depicting the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu) or Ardhanari Stotram (half man, half woman form of the divine). Manyregionally performed Abhinayacompositionsarebasedonthe Radha-Krishna theme. The Astapadis of the Radha-Krishna

love poem Gita Govinda written by Jayadeva are usually performed in Odisha, as part of the dance repertoire.

dance drama, is next in sequence. Usually Hindu and legendary dramas are chosen as themes.

A distinctive part of the Odissi tradition is the inclusion of Moksha (or Mokshya) finale in the performance sequence. This the concluding item of a recital. Moksha in Hindu traditions means

“spiritual liberation”. This dance movement traditionally attempts to convey a sense of spiritual release and soul liberation, soaring into the realm of pure aesthetics. Movement and pose merge in a fast pace pure dance climax.

The basic unit of Odissi are called bhangas. These are made up of eight belis, or body positions and movements, combined in many varieties. Motionis uthas(rising or up), baithas (sitting or down) or sthankas (standing). The gaits or movement on the dance floor is called chaalis, with movement tempo linked to emotions according to the classical Sanskrit texts. Thus, for example, burhas

or quick pace suggest excitement, while a slow confused pace suggests dejection. For aesthetics, movement is centered on a core, a point in space or floor, and each dancer has her imaginary square

of space, with spins and expression held within it. The foot movement or pada bhedastoo have basic dance units, and Odissi has six of these, in contrast to four found in most classical Indian dances.

The three primary dance positions in Odissi are:

· Samabhanga – the square position, with weight equally placed on the two legs, spine straight, arms raised up with elbows bent.

· Abhanga – the body weight shifts from side to side, due to deep leg bends, while the feet and knees are turned outwards, and one hip extending sideways.

, with torso deflectin

Tribhanga – is an S-shaped three-fold bending of body g in one direction while the head and hips deflecting in the opposite direction of torso. Further, the hands and legs frame the body into a composite of two squares (rectangle), providing an aesthetic frame of reference. This is described in the ancient Sanskrit texts, and forms of it are found in other Hindu dance arts, but tribhanga postures developed most in and are distinctive to Odissi, and they are found in historic Hindu temple reliefs.

Mudras or Hastas are hand gestures which are used to express the meaning of a given act. Like all classical dances of India, the aim of Odissi is in part to convey emotions, mood and inner feelings in the story by appropriate hand and facial gestures. There are 63

Hastas in modern Odissi dance, and these have the same names

or structure as those in the pan-Indian Hindu texts, but most closely matching those in the Abhinaya Chandrika. These are subdivided into three, according to the traditional texts:

· Asamyukta Hasta – Single hand Mudras – 28 Prakar (gestures, for instance to communicate a salute, prayer, embrace, energy, bond, swing, carriage, shell, arrow, holding a thing, wheel, and so on.)

· Samyukta Hasta – Double hand Mudras – 24 Prakar (gestures, for instance to indicate a flag, flower, type of bird or animal, moon, action like grasping, and so on.)

· Nrutya Hasta – ―Pure Dance‖ Mudras

The Mudra system is derived from the "Abhinaya Darpana" by Nandikeshavara and the ancient Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni.

Costumes

The Odissi dancers are colorfully dressed with makeup and jewellery. The Saree worn by Odissi dancers are brightly coloured, and usually of local silk (Pattasari). It is worn with pleats, or may have a pleat tailor stitched in front, to allow maximum flexibility

during the footwork. These sarees have traditional prints of Odisha with regional designs and embellishments, and may be the Sambalpuri Saree and Bomkai Saree.

The jewellery includes silver pieces, a metal favored in regional tradition. The hair is tied up, andtypicallydrawn intoanelaborate bunresembling a Hindu temple

spire, and decorated with

Seenthi. Theyhairdo maycontaina moonshapedcrestof

white flowers, or a reed crown called Mukoot

with peacock feathers

(symbolism for Lord Krishna). The dancers forehead is marked with Tikka, and adorned with various jewelry such as the Allaka (head

piece on which the tikka hangs). The eyes are ringed with Kajal (black eyeliner).

Ear covers called Kapa or ear rings decorate the sides of the head, while necklace adorns the neck. The dancer wears a pair of armlets also called Bahichudi or Bajuband, on the upper arm.

The wrist is covered with Kankana (bangles).

At the waist they wear an elaborate belt which ties down one end of the Sari. The

ankles are decorated with a leather piece on top of which are bells (ghungroo). The

dancer's palms and soles may be painted with red coloured dye called the Alta.

Modern Odissi male performers wear dhoti – a broadcloth tied around waist, pleated for movement, and tucked between legs; usually extends to knee or lower. Upper body is bare chested, and a long thin folded translucent sheet wrapping over one shoulder and usually tucked below a wide belt.

v Music Instruments

Odissi dance is accompanied by Odissi music. The primary Odissi ragas are Kalyana, Nata, Shree Gowda, Baradi, Panchama , Dhanashri, Karnata, Bhairavee and Shokabaradi.

Odissi, is a form of "visualized music", wherein the Ragas and Raginis, respectively the primary and secondary musical modes, are integrated by the musicians and interpreted through the dancer. Each note is a means, has a purpose and with a mood in classical Indian music, which Odissi accompanies to express sentiments in a song through Parija. This is true whether the performance is formal, or less formal as in Nartana and Natangi used during festive occasions and the folksy celebration of life.

A distinctive feature of Odissi is that it includes both North and South Indian Ragas, which in 20th-century scholarship has been grouped as the Hindustani and the Carnatic music. Odissi music integrates the music styles of the two major Indian music concert

traditions, and does not have a separate systematic classification like those found in the North and South Indian traditions.

An Odissi troupe comes with musicians and musical instruments. The orchestra consists of various regional musical instruments, such as the Mardala (barrel drum), harmonium, flute, sitar, violin, cymbals held in fingers and others. An Odissi orchestra essentially

consists of a pakhawaj player (usually the Guru himself), a singer, a flutist, a sitar or violin player and a manjira player.

Current Proponents

The Odissi maestros who revived the art form in the late 1940s include

Kelucharan Mohapatra, Raghunath Dutta, Deba Prasad Das, Pankaj Charan Das and Gangadhar Pradhan. The instrumental role played by Guru Mayadhar Raut

saw the dance form achieving classical status. Other

famous exponents include disciples of Kelucharan Mohapatra namely Sanjukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh and Kumkum Mohanty; Aruna

Mohanty, Anita Babu and Aadya Kaktikar to mention a few.

Guinness World Records has acknowledged the feat of the largest congregation of Odissi dancers in a single event. 555 Odissi dancers performed at the event hosted on 23 December 2011, in the Kalinga stadium, Bhubaneswar, Orissa. The dancers performed the Mangalacharan, Battu, Pallavi, Abhinay and Mokshya

dance items from the Odissi repertoire.

More than 1000 Odissi dancers performed at the World Cultural Festival March 12, 2016. This is tilldatethe largestcongregation of Odissi dancers in a single event.

Odissi has been included in Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar's BTech syllabus since 2015 as the first Indian national technical institute to introduce any classical dance in syllabus

MANIPURI

History

Manipuri dance, also known as Jagoi, is one of the major Indian classical dance forms, named after the region of its origin – Manipur, a state in northeastern India bordering with Myanmar (Burma), Assam, Nagaland and Mizoram. It is particularly known

for its Hindu Vaishnavism themes, and exquisite performances of love-inspired dance drama of Radha-Krishna calledRaslila.

However, the dance is also performed to themes related to Shaivism, Shaktism and regional deities such as Umang Lai during Lai Haraoba.

The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go beyond recorded history. The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional festivals, therearelegendary

references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and goddesses who created the universe. Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals still performed in Manipur which has its roots in the pre-Vaishnavite period. Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of all stylised dances in Manipur. Literally meaning - the merrymaking of the gods, it is performed as a ceremonial offering of song and dance. The principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and priestesses) who re-enact the theme of the creation of the world. With the arrival of Vaishnavism

in the 15th century A.D., new compositions based on episodes from the life of Radha and Krishna were gradually introduced. It was in the reign of King Bhagyachandra that the popular Rasleela dances of Manipur originated. It is said, that this 18th century philosopher

king conceived this complete dance form along with its unique costume and music in a dream. Under successive rulers, new leelas, and rhythmic and melodic compositions were introduced.

The roots of Manipuri dance, as with all classical Indian dances, is the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text Natya Shastra, but with influences from the culture fusion between India, Southeast Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, Siberia, Micronesia and Polynesia. According to the traditional legend, the indigenous people ofthe

Manipur valley were the dance-experts revered as Gandharvas in the Hindu epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), suggesting adance tradition has existed in Manipursince antiquity. With evidence of Vishnutemples in the medievalera, the dance arts have been passed down verbally from generation to generationas anoraltradition. The first reliablydatedwrittentextsdescribingthe art of Manipuri dance are from the early 18th-century.

Features

The Manipuri dance is a team performance, with its own unique costumes, aesthetics, conventions and repertoire. The Manipuri dance drama is, for most part, marked by a performance that is graceful, fluid, sinuous with greater emphasis on hand and upper body gestures. It is accompanied with devotional music created with many instruments, with the beat set by cymbals (kartal or manjira) and double-headed drum (pung or Manipuri mrdanga) of sankirtan.

The ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata epic mentions Manipur, where Arjuna meets and falls in love with Chitragada. Dance is called Jagoi in a major Meiteilanguageoftheregionand

it traces a long tradition in Manipur. Lai Haraoba dance likely has ancient roots and shares many similarities with dance postures of Nataraja and his legendary disciple called Tandu (locally called

Tangkhu). Similarly, as does the dance related to commoner Khamba and princess Thoibi – who perform as pan-IndianShiva and Parvati, in the legendary tragic love story of Khamba-Thoibi

found in the Manipuri epic Moirang Parba.

The text Bamon Khunthok, which literally means "Brahmin migration", states that Vaishnavism practices were adopted by the king of Manipur in the 15th century CE, arriving from Shan kingdom of Pong. Further waves of Buddhists and Hindus arrived from Assam and Bengal, after mid 16th-century during Hindu- Muslim wars of Bengal Sultanate, and were welcomed in Manipur. In 1704, the King Charai Rongba adopted Vaishnavism, and declared it to be the state religion. In 1717, the King Gareeb Niwaz converted to Chaitanya style devotional Vaishnavism, which emphasized singing, dancing and religious performance arts centered around Hindu god Krishna. In 1734, devotional dance drama centered around Hindu god Rama expanded Manipuridance tradition.

Maharaja Bhagyachandra of Manipur State adopted Gaudiya Vaishnavism (Krishna oriented), documented and codified the Manipuri dance style, launching the golden era of its development

and refinement. He composed three of the five types of Ras Lilas, the Maha Ras, the Basanta Ras and the Kunja Ras, performed

at the Sri Sri Govindaji temple in Imphal during his reign and also the Achouba Bhangi Pareng dance. He designed an elaborate costume known as Kumil (the cylindrical long mini-mirror- embellished stiff

skirt costume, that makes the dance appear to be floating). The Govinda

Sangeet Lila Vilasa, an important tex detailing the fundamentals ofthe dance

is also attributed to him. Kin Bhagyachandra is also credited with

starting public performances of Raas Lila and Manipuri dances in Hindu temples.

By 1891, annexation of Manipur into British Empire, marked the end to its golden era of creative systematization and expansion of Manipuri dance. The Manipuri dance was thereafter ridiculed as immoral, ignorant and old-fashioned, like all other classical Hindu performance arts. The dance and artists survived only in temples, such as in Imphal's Govindji temple. The cultural discrimination was resisted and the dance revived by Indian independence movement activists and scholars.

The Manipuri dance genre got a second life through the efforts of the Noble Laureate Rabindranath Tagore. In 1919, he was impressed after seeing a dance composition of Goshtha Lila in Sylhet . He invited Guru Budhimantra Singh who had trained in

Manipuri dance, as faculty to the Indian culture and studies center named Shantiniketan. In 1926, Guru Naba Kumar joined the faculty to teach the Ras Lila. Other celebrated Gurus, Senarik Singh Rajkumar, Nileshwar Mukherji and Atomba Singh were also invited to teach there and assisted Tagore with the choreography of several of his dance-dramas.

The traditional Manipuri dance style embodies delicate, lyrical and graceful movements. The dance features rounded soft sensuous movements of women, and occasional fast movements by male characters. Unlike other classical Indian dances with religious themes, the Manipuri dance artists do not wear anklet bells and the footwork is subdued and gentle in the Manipuri style. The stage movements is part of a composite movement of the whole body.

Chali or Chari is the basic dance movement in Manipuri Ras dances. The repertoire and underlying play depends on the season. The dances are celebrated on full moon nights, three times

in autumn (August through November) and once again in spring (March or April). The VasantRas is timedwiththe Hindufestival of colors called Holi, while others are timed with post-harvest

festivals of Diwali and others. The plays and songs recited during the dance performance center around the love and frolics between Radha and Krishna, in the presence of Gopis named Lalita, Vishakha, Chitra, Champaklata, Tungavidya, Indurekha, Rangadevi and Sudevi. There is a composition and dance sequence for each Gopi, and the words have two layers of meanings, one literal and other spiritual. The longest piece of the play focuses on Radha and Krishna. The dancer playing Krishna expresses emotions, while the body language and hand gestures of the Gopi display their feelings

such as longing, dejection or cheer.

In other plays, the Manipuri dancers are more forceful, acrobatic

and their costumes adjust to the need of the dance. Dozens of boys synchronously dance the Gopa Ras, where they enact the chores of daily life such as feeding the cows. In Uddhata Akanba, states Ragini Devi, the dance is full of vigor (jumps, squats, spins), energy and elegance.

Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the Sankirtana and the Thang-Ta. There are five principal Ras dances of which four are linked with specific seasons, while the fifth can be presented at any time of the year. In Manipuri Ras, the main characters are Radha, Krishna and the gopis. The themes often depict the pangs of separation of the gopis and Radha from Krishna. The parengs or pure dance sequences performed in the Rasleela dances follow the specific rhythmic patterns and body movements, which are traditionally handed down. TheRas costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff skirt which extends to the feet. The martial dancers of Manipur - the Thang-ta - have their origins in the days when man's survival depended on his ability to defend himself from wild animals. Today, Manipur has an evolved and sophisticated repertoire of martial dances, the dancers use swords, spears and shields. Real fight scenes betweenthe dancers showanextensive trainingandcontrol of the body.

Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasya and ranges from the most vigorous masculine to the subdued and graceful feminine. Generally known for its lyrical and graceful

movements, Manipuri dance has an elusive quality. In keeping with the subtleness of the style, Manipuri abhinaya does not play up the mukhabhinaya very much - the facial expressions are natural and not exaggerated -sarvangabhinaya, or the use of the whole body to convey a certain rasa, is its forte.

Costumes

The classical Manipuri dance features unique costumes. The women characters are dressed like a Manipuri bride, in Potloi costumes, of which the most notable isthe Kumil.

A Kumil is an elaborately decorated barrel shaped long skirt

stiffened at the bottom and close to the top. The decorations on the barrel include gold and silver embroidery, small pieces of mirrors,

and border prints of lotus, Kwaklei orchid, and other items in nature. The Kumil may be an adaptation of Fanek (or Phanek) – a tighter sarong-like wear which is used in more vigorous dances and by male characters. The Kumil is bordered at the top with undulating gauzy translucent top skirt

shaped like an open flower, and tied in Trikasta or three places

around the waist (front, back and one side) with spiritual symbolism of the ancient Hindu texts. The upper body is dressed in a velvet blouse, the head covered in a white translucent veil, to symbolically mark elusiveness. The dancers do not wear bells on ankles as in other classical Indian dances, but like them Manipuri dance artists do adorn the face, neck, waist, hands and legs with round jewelry ornaments or flower garlands that flow with the dress symmetry. The dancers appear to float on the stage, as if from another world.

The male characters dress in a dhoti (also called dhotra or dhora) – a brilliantly colored broadcloth

pleated, wrapped and tied at waist and allowing complete freedom of movement for

the legs. The Krishna character wears a peacock feather containing crown, with a feathery attachment at the back.

The costume tradition of the Manipuri dance celebrates its more ancient artistic local traditions, fused with the spiritual ideas embedded in the love story of Radha-Krishna found in the tenth book of the Bhagavata Purana.

Music and Instruments

The musical accompaniment for Manipuri dance comes from a percussion instrument called the Pung, a singer, small kartals (cymbals), sembong, harmonium, a stringed instrument called the pena and wind instrument such as a flute.

The drummers are male artistes and, after learning to play the pung, students train to dance with it while drumming. This dance is celebrated, with the dancer wearing white turbans, white dhotis, a folded shawl over the left shoulder, and the drum strap worn over the right shoulder. It is known as Pung cholom, and the dancer plays the drum and performs the dance jumps and other movements.

Another dance called Kartal cholom, is similar to Pung cholom, but the dancers carry and dance to the rhythm created with cymbals. This is a group dance, where dancers form a circle, move in the same direction while making music and dancing to the

rhythm. Women dance too as groups, such as in the Manipuri dance called Mandilla cholom, and these usually go with devotional songs and playing colorful tassels-string tied cymbals where one side represents Krishna and the other Radha. Shaiva (tandava) dances are choreographed as Duff cholom and Dhol

cholom.

The lyrics used in Manipuri are usually from the classical poetry of Jayadeva, Vidyapati, Chandidas, Govindadas or Gyandas and may be in Sanskrit, Maithili, Brij Bhasha orothers.

Current Proponents

Imminent Manipuri performers include Guru Bipin Singh, his disciple Darshana Jhaveri and her sisters Nayana, Ranjana and Suverna, Charu Mathur and Devyani Chalia among others.

SATTRIYA

History

The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the great Vaishnava saint and reformer of Assam, Mahapurusha Sankaradeva as a powerful medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith. The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on. This neo-Vaishnava treasure of

Assamese dance and drama has been, for centuries, nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava maths or monasteries. Because of its religious character and

association with the Sattras, this dance style has been aptly named Sattriya.

Sankaradeva introduced this dance form by incorporating different elements from various treatises, local folk dances with his own rare outlook. There were two dance forms prevalent in Assam before the neo-Vaishnava movement such as Ojapali and Devadasi with many classical elements. Two varieties of Ojapali dances are still prevalent in Assam i.e. Sukananni or Maroi Goa Ojah and Vyah Goa Ojah. Sukananni Oja paali is of Sakti cult and Vyah Goa Oja paali is of Vaishnava cult. Sankaradeva included Vyah Goa Ojah into his daily rituals in Sattra. Till date Vyah Goa Ojah is a part of rituals of the Sattras of Assam. The dancers in a Oja paali chorus not only sing and dance but also explain the narration by gestures and stylized movements. As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number of rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clear indication of the influence of the former on the latter. Other visible influences on Sattriya dance are those from Assamese folk dances namely Bihu, Bodos etc. Many hand gestures and rhythmic syllables are strikingly similar in these danceforms.

Since the 15th century, the Sattriya art grew as part of the Vaishnava bhakti movement, in Hindu monasteries called Sattra. The art was developed and practiced by monks in the form dance- dramas about legends and mythologies of Krishna, particularly from texts such as the Bhagavata Purana. One distinctive part of the Sattriya dance inside temples and monasteries is that the dance is not celebrated before anyidol, but is performed before acopyofthe

Bhagavata Purana placed in eastern (sun rise) corner called Manikut of the dance hall (namghar)

Features

Like the other schools of Indian Classical dance, Sattriya encompasses the principles required of a classical dance form: the treatises of dance and dramaturgy, like Natya Shastra, Abhinaya Darpana, and Shakaradeva's Sangit Ratnakara; The Sangit Ratnakara of Shankaradeva complements his Bhakti Ratnakara,

which traces the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Yoga and Vedanta themes, the ethical values such as non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya) and others, thus premising a theological foundation to Sattriya. To

Shankaradeva, religious values, ethics, joys of life and performance arts were intimately linked, and he asked the leaders of Hindu monasteries to compose at least one play, during their tenure, before they die.

Sattriya repertoire (marg) includes nritta (pure dance, solo), nritya (expressive dance, solo), and natya (dramatic play, group). Like all major classical Indian dance forms, those three categories of performances are:[25][26]

· The Nritta performance is abstract, fast and rhythmic aspect of the dance. The viewer is presented with pure movement in Nritta, wherein the emphasis is the beauty in motion, form, speed, range and pattern. This part of the repertoire has no interpretative aspect, no telling ofstory.

· The Nritya is slower and expressive aspect of the dance that attempts to communicate feelings, storyline particularly with spiritual themes. In a nritya, the performance expands to include story-telling, the silent expression of words through gestures and body motion set to musical notes. This part of a repertoire is more than sensory enjoyment, it aims to engage the emotions and mind of the viewer.

· The Natya is a play, typically a team performance, but can be acted out by a solo performer where the dancer uses certain standardized body movements to indicate a new character in

the underlyingstory. ANatya incorporatestheelementsof a Nritya.

The hand gestures (mudras), footwork (padas), postures, rhythms, training of artists and other aspects of the Sattriya dance drama closely follow those described in Natya Shastra and other classical Hindu dance texts, and are quite similar to other major classical dances such as Odissi, Kathakali, Bharatanatyam and others found in south and north India. Some basic elements and features of Sattriya match those found in the Manipuri dance found in neighboring Manipur state.

Sattriya Nritya is a genre of dance drama that tells mythical and religious stories through hand and face

expressions. The basic dance unit and exercise of a Sattriya is called a Mati Akhara, equal 64 just like in Natya Shastra, are the foundational sets dancers learn during their training. The Akharas

are subdivided into Ora, Saata, Jhalak, Sitika, Pak, Jap, Lon and Khar. A performance integrates two styles, one

masculine (Paurashik B

hangi, energetic and with jumps), and feminine (Stri Bhangi, Lasya or delicate).

Traditionally, Sattriya was performed only by bhokots (male monks) in monasteries as a part of their daily rituals or to mark special festivals. Today, in addition to this practice, Sattriyais also performed on stage by men and women who are not members ofthe sattras, on themes not merelymythological.

The plays choreographed in a Sattriya are those found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavata Purana, the Epics, and the compositions by Assamese scholars. The stories related to the love between Radha and Krishna are particularlycommon.

Costumes

The costume of Sattriya dance is primarily of two types: the male costume comprising the dhoti and chadar and the paguri ( turban) and the female costume comprising the ghuri, chadar and kanchi (waist cloth). Traditionally the

costumes were ofwhite or rawsilkcolor with use of red, blue and yellow for specific dance numbers. In earlier times velvet and satin materials were mostly used for the costumes.With

change of time, as this dance form evolved from the sattras onto stage, the design and materials of the dance costumes changed. Pat (also spelled paat) – a silk produced in Assam which is derived from the mulberry plant and muga ( golden silk of Assam) is also used in preparing the dance costume. Other brilliant colours are

also used in the female costumes. These hand-woven materials normally have intricate local motifs like Kingkhap, Miri Motif, Kolka etc.

Kharu (bracelets), different type of neck pieces like Mata Moni(for male dancers), Golpata,Dhulbiri (shaped like the musical instrument dhol), Bena (pendant shaped like a crescent), Jethipata (lizard shaped), Dugdugi (leaf shaped), Senpata (eagle shaped), Dhansira (strand of rice grain), Lokaparo (pegion design). Earrings are made in similar designs and also Thuka Suna and Keru are worn by dancers. Female dancers wear white flowers in thehair.

The costumes of Ankiya Naats (dramas) are colourful and character specific. Use of Mukha (Masks) to depicts demons and special characters are also unique of this dance form. The art of

mask making is an integral part of Sattriya culture and originated in the Sattras of Assam. Beautifully decorated turbans and crowns made by the local artisans are used in the Ankiya Naats.

The facial makeup of Sattriya dance resembles other classical dance forms of India. However, in earlier times traditional materialsand herbs were used for makeup.

Music and Instruments

Sattriya Nritya is accompanied by musical compositions called borgeets (composed by Sankardeva and Shree Shree madhavdev, among others) which are based on classical ragas.

A key musical instrument that accompanies a Sattriya performance are khols (two faced, asymmetrical drum quite different from the rest of India) played with fingers. The special shape and materials of construction – clay, wood, leather, rice dough, iron filings, rope straps – of Sattriya khol produces a high pitch with the right side (Daina), while producing a deep bass sound on the left (Bewa).

Accompanying the khol are various types of Talas or cymbals (Manjira, Bhortal, Bihutal, Patital, Khutital) and the flute (bansuri). Other instruments like the violin and the harmonium have been recent additions.

Current Proponents

Dr Indira PP Bora is the first female artist to receive the Sangeet Natak Akademi award in Sattriya dance in 1996, Bora is aleading pioneer of the dance form. Bora together with her daughter Dr Meneka PP Bora, form the power couple of Sattriya Nrittya, taking the dance form to diverse platforms in India to New Zealand, US to Vietnam.

MOHINIATTAM

Mohiniyattam literally interpreted as the dance of „Mohini‟, the celestial enchantress of the Hindu mythology, is the classical solo dance form of Kerala. According to a Puranic story, Lord Vishnu took on the guise of a „Mohini‟ to seduce the Asuras, both in connection with churning of the ocean and episode of the slaying of Bhasmasura. The delicate body movements and subtle facial expressions are more feminine in nature and therefore are ideally suited for performance by women.

History

Mohiniyattam, also referred to as Mohini-attam, is derived from "Mohini" – a famous female avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in Indian mythology. Mohini refers to a "divine enchantress, supreme seductress". She appears in Hindu mythologies during a battle between Devas (good) and Asuras

(evil), after the evil had won control of Amrita (nectar of immortality). Appearing in her youthful bloom, dressed rapturously she uses her charms

to seduce the Asuras, who seeking her favors, give her the Amrita to distribute among the evil forces. Mohini after gaining the Amrita gives it to the good instead, depriving the evil from gaining immortality.

Mohiniyattam's roots, like all classical Indian dances, are in the Natya Shastra – the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text on performance arts. However, it follows the Lasya style described in Natya Shastra, that is a dance which is delicate, eros-filled and feminine. It is traditionallyasolodanceperformedbywomenafterextensive training. The repertoire of Mohiniyattam includes music in the Carnatic style, singing and acting a play through the dance, where the recitation may be either by a separate vocalist or the dancer herself. The song is typically in Tamil-Sanskrit hybrid called Manipravala.

The earliest mention of the word is found in the 16th-century legal text Vyavaharamala, but the likely roots of the dance are older. The dance was systematized in the 18th century, was ridiculed as a Devadasi prostitution system during the colonial British Raj,

banned by a series of laws from 1931 through 1938, a ban that was protested and partially repealed in 1940. The socio-political conflict ultimately led to renewed interest, revival and reconstruction of Mohiniyattam by the people of Kerala, particularly the poet Vallathol Narayana Menon.

Mohiniyattam'shistory is unclear. Kerala, the region wherethisdance genre

developed and is popular, has a long

tradition of lasya style dances whose basics

and structure may be at

the root. The earliest evidence of Mohiniyattam, or a Mohiniyattam- like dance tradition is found in temple sculpture of Kerala. The 11th century Vishnu temple at Trikodithanam, and the Kidangur Subramanya temple, have several sculptures of female dancers in Mohiniyattam pose. The textual evidence from 12th century onwards suggest that Malayalam poets and

playwrights included Lāsyā themes. The 16th century Vyavaharamala by Nambootiri contains the first known mention of the term Mohiniyattam, in the context ofa

payment to be made to a Mohiniyattam dancer. Another text, Gosha

Yatra, from the 17th century too mentions the term. The 18th century Balarama Bharatam, a major secondary

work on Natya Shastra composed in Kerala, mentions many dance styles including Mohini Natana.

With the spread of colonial British rule in the 19th century India, all classical dance forms of India were ridiculed and discouraged, leading to their severely decline. This was in part the result of the Victorian morality of sexual repressiveness along with Anglican missionaries who criticized Hinduism.

The seductive gestures and facial expressions during temple dances were caricatured in The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, published at the start of the 20th century, as evidence of "harlots, debased erotic culture, slavery to idols and priests" tradition, and Christian missionaries demanded that this must be stopped, launching the "anti-dance movement" or "anti-nautch movement" in 1892. This movement affected all classical dances in India and contributed to their decline, including the stigmatization of

Mohiniyattam in the princely states of Travancore and Cochin in the British Empire.

The ridicule and bans enacted during the British colonial era contributed to nationalist sentiments, and impacted all Hindu performance arts including Mohiniyattam. It too was revived and reconstructed, particularly in the 1930s by the nationalist Malayalam poet Vallathol Narayana Menon, who helped repeal the ban on temple dancing in Kerala, as

well as established

the Kerala Kalamandalam dance school and encouraged Mohiniattam studies, training and practice.

Other significant champions of Mohiniyattam in the 20th century have been Mukundraja, Krishna Panicker, Thankamony, as well as the guru and dancer Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma.

Features

Mohiniyattam is a lasya subgenre of dance, performed in the Kaisiki vritti (graceful style), as discussed in ancient Indian performance arts texts such as the Natya Shastra. More specifically, it is a dance that excels in Ekaharya Abhinaya form, that is a solo expressive dance performance aided by singing and music. The dance includes nritta (pure dance, solo), nritya (expressive dance, solo) and modern productionssometimesinclude natya(play, group dance):

· The Nritta performance is abstract, rhythmic aspectofthe dance that appears early and at the end of the dance repertoire. The viewer is presented with pure movement, wherein the emphasis is the beauty in motion, form, speed, range and pattern. This part of the repertoire has no interpretative aspect, no telling of story.

· The Nritya is the expressive aspect of the dance that attempts to communicate a storyline, with emotions and feelings, with spiritual themes. In a nritya, the dance-acting (Abhinaya, Vaittari) expands to include silent expression of words through hand and facial gestures and body motion set to musical notes. The dancer articulates a legend or a spiritual message, aiming to engage the emotions and mind of theviewer.

The basicpostureofMohiniyattamisparted feet, knees bent outwards, an erect uppe

torso, gentle 8-shape side to side swaying o body

along with hips (Ati Bhanga). Th footwork is soft, sliding and synchronous wit the

musical beat and acting. The bod movement is sometimes described in terms o calming

images of nature as the swinging ofthe palmleaves, andthe gentle undulatingofocean waves.

The basic dance units in Mohiniattam ar known as

atavus oratavukal, and these

are grouped into four : Taganam , Jaganam , Dhaganam and Sammisram. The hand and facial gestures of the dance follow the classical text of Hastha Lakshanadeepika, which has elaborate description of mudras.

The repertoire sequence of Mohiniyattam is similar to that of Bharatanatyam, and contains seven items that are performed to a structure described in classical dance texts:Cholkettu(invocation,

but starts with offering reverence to a goddess Bhagavati and ends with a prayer to Shiva), Jatisvaram or more precisely Swarajeti, Varnam (a play wherein she embeds a mimicry for distraction while communicating the underlying story or message), Padam (song),

Tillana (dancer's interpretation of melody the musician create),

Shlokam and Saptam.

Costume

The costume includes plain white or off-white such as ivory or cream colored sari embroidered with bright golden or gold laced colored brocade (similar to a ceremonial Kasavu saree). She wears a fitted choli (blouse) matching the sari, below which at the waist is a golden belt which tucks in the end of the sari, and highlights the waist. In front of the saree, below the belt is pleated sheet with

concentric bands in gold or saffron colors, which allow freedom of movement and assist in visually communicating the mudra to distant audience.

The dancer wears relatively simple jewelry and no masks, in contrast to the other major classical dance of Kerala called Kathakali. Her jewelry typically includes items on fingers, wrists, neck and ears (which may have bells).

The face makeup is natural, but lips are brilliant red, she has the Hindu tikka (Gobi) on her forehead and her eyes are lined to help prominently highlight the eye movements

during the dance. Her ankles are adorned with leather straps with bells

(chilanka), feet and fingers colored red with natural dyes. Her

hairdo is gathered and tied into a smooth tight round chignon on one side of her head (typically left) and the bun then ringed with fragrant flowers (typically jasmine mulla).

Music and Instruments

The vocal music of Mohiniyattam involves various rhythms. There are numerous compositions for a Mohiniyattam repertoire, most of whose lyrics are in Manipravalam, a mixture of Sanskrit, Tamil and Malayalam.

The musical instruments usually used in Mohiniyattam are Mridangam or

Madhalam(barreldrum),Idakka(hourglassdrum),

flute, Veena, and Kuzhitalam (cymbals). The ragas (melody) are rendered in the

sopana (steps) style, which is a slow melodic style with roots in the Natya Shastra.

Current Proponents

Imminent 20th century exponents of Mohiniattam apart from Vallathol Narayana Menon were Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma, Thankamony, Krishna Panicker and Mukundraja. Present day exponents include Sunanda Nair; Smitha Rajan, granddaughter of Kalyanikutty Amma; Radha Dutta; Vijayalakshmi; Gopika Varma and Jayaprabha Menon among others.

*****

Chapter-2 INDIAN FOLK DANCES

Andaman Nicobar

Nicobarese Dance - The fascinating tribal group on the island of Car Nicobar — performs this during the Ossuary Feast or the Pig Festival.

Dedicated to the departed head of the family, the occasion is observed with night- long dancing in the full moonlight under the swaying palms. The dancers dressed in coconut fronds step gracefully in time to traditional songs. Feasting and good food followed by a pig fight in the morning are other highlights of the celebration

Andhra Pradesh

festivals as 'Bhagavathams'.

Veedhi Natakam – Street Drama. origin in the late 16th century and early 17th century, when the Bhakti cult especially the Krishna Cult was in ascendance in Andhra. These were presented during the festivals of and in praise of 'Bhagavan' and the people who presented them were called the and performances during local

Burrakatha – Oral Story Telling. Its an oral storytelling technique in the Katha tradition, performed in villages of Andhra Pradesh & Telangana. The troupe consists of one main performer and two co-performers. It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes. The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story or a contemporary social issue

Kolannalu or kolkolannalu / Kolattam – Stick Dance. The Kolattam dance involves religious offering homage to the temple Goddess by the women of a region, especially at Andhra Pradesh.In Kolattam Dance the dancers use sticks to keep the rhythm of the dance. Kolattam is also called Kolanna in the Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh state

Butta Bommalu - Butta Bommalu is a typical folk dance, popular in Tanuku region of West Godavari District in AP. In this particular dance, the dancers wear masks of different characters and entertain people with their delicate movements, accompanied by non verbal music.

Arunachal Pradesh

Wancho Dance - The Wancho tribes of Arunachal Pradesh perform their special dances on the occasions like festivals, ceremonies etc, are popularly known as Wancho dances. Ozele festival of Wancho tribe is celebrated in the month of February-March, when the work of sowing of millet is over.

Bardo Chham is a folk dance of Sherdukpens, a small community of West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh, Bardo Chham is based on the stories of good and evil. The Sherdukpens mask themselves representing the different animals and dance to show an act of fighting the evil forces.

Assam

Bag rumba – Bodos.It is the usually practiced during Bwisagu, a Bodo festival in the Vishuva Sankranti (midApril).Bwisagu begins with cow worship; then, young people reverentially bow down to their parents and elders.

Bihu – Harvest Dance. This joyous dance is performed by both

young men and women, and is characterized by brisk dance steps, and rapid hand movement. Dancers wear traditionally colourful Clothing.

Bohuwa Dance – Bohuwa is a traditional event of the Sonowal Kacharis of Assam. It is celebrated by theSonowal Kacharis every two year

in Dibrugarh

Bhortal Nritya – dance is performed in a group. Six or seven dancers generally present the Bhortaldance of Assam together. This dance can be performed in larger groups as well. It is performed to a very fast beat. This beat is known as ‗ Thiya Nom‗. The dancers are equipped with cyrnbols while performing this dance

Bihar

Bidesia- popular form of dance drama, originated in a twentieth century folk theatre and prevalent in the Bhojpuri-speaking region of Bihar.

Jat Jatin Dance - Jat Jatin is the dance of women of the Mithila region of Bihar The original theme of the dance explains the story of the lovers Jat and Jatin, who were separated and living in difficult situations. But now through "Jat Jatin" many social situations are also discussed like natural calamities situation like droughts and floods.

Jhijian Dance - It is sung when there is no rain for a long time than its usual arrival. Through `Jhijhian` villagers are portraying drought when there is not a single drop of rain anywhere, and the people are awaiting rains - this is the time when the village women pray to Lord Indra for rain.

Sohar Khilouna Dance - ladies sing Sohar on the occasion of birth ceremony of a child. They sometimes compare the child with Lord Rama, sometimes with Lord Krishna and so on. Sohar has its own distinctive dictions.

Chattisgarh

Panthi-The folk dance of the Satnami community of Chhattisgarh bears religious overtones. Performed on Maghi Purnima - the birth anniversary of their Guru(Saint) Guru Ghasidas, the dance is evolving still to include a variety of steps and patterns.

Saila Dance – Stick Dance. Mostly it is famous among the people of Sarguja, Chhindwara and Baitul districts. Saila is known by Danda Nach or Dandar Pate.

Raut Nacha is a dance performed by yadava /yaduvanshis, a caste which considers themselves to be descendants of Krishna. For them it is as a symbol of worship to Krishna. They perform the dance at the time of 'dev udhni ekadashi'. Resembles ‗Ras Leela‗.

Gaur Maria Dance – Bastar Dist. Gaur Maria dance is one of the important dances of Bison Horn Marias of Abhujmaria plateau of Bastar in Chhattisgarh. This is a very beautiful and joyful dance and is basically performed as an invocation on the occasion of marriages. It illustrates the joyous celebration of tribes of Chhatisgarh which mainly includes Horns of Bison (State animal of Chhattisgarh).

Goa

Dashavatara Dance - Dashavatara is performed to express ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu in dance or enacted form. Based on Vishnu Purana. One stream believes this dance form has evolved from "Yakshagana", while another considers it, to have emerged from "Kuchipudi".

Ghodemodni - a dance involving horse-like movements. It is a spectacular warrior-dance commemorating the victory of the Ranes, the Maratha rulers of the Sattari taluka in Goa, over the Portuguese.

Corredinho Dance – Portuguese Folk Dance. Corredinho Marcha de

Fontainhas, a song-cum- dance, is famous for its rhythmic and exquisite footwork where normally six couples take part.

Gujarat

Garba -This dance form has

connection with Shakti-Puja i.e. worship of goddess having powers over all. Its origin is believed to be in the worship of goddess Jagdamba. It is played in a circular form performed by ladies on the nine nights of Navaratri festival, Sharad Purnima, Vasant Panchami, Holi and such other festive occasions.

Dandiya Ras - `Dandia-Ras` signifies Ras dance, which is, considered a form of Ras Leela. Ras Leela, which was an inseparable part of Lord Krishna`s childhood action he used to perform at Gokul and Vrindavan.

Bhavai Dance – "Bhava" meaning expression of emotion or feeling. Continuous playing on the Bhungal, a very long wind brass instrument, before and during the performance calls the villagers to the scene of the Bhavai. Women are not strictly allowed to take part in the Bhavai. Therefore, the male artists perform female roles, which makes the entire drama more joyful.

Tippani Dance(Saurashtra)-In this dance, women take a wooden rod to beat the floor, The rod has iron/wood piece at one end, to make it stronger in opposite rows. This makes the dance different and popular in Saurashtra.

Haryana

Saang Dance -This is performed by a group of ten or twelve persons. They sing religious stories and folk tales in open spaces. It can be called a 'open air theater'. Swang incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry (or nakal) accompanied by song and dialogue.

Ghoomar Dance– Chhathi dance is also a ritualistic dance, performed at the birth occasion. But, this dance is performed only on the birth of a male child. Women perform this dance on the sixth day of the birth.

Phag Dance –This is a seasonal dance of the farmers usually performed in the month of 'Phalgun'. This is a mixed dance but sometimes performed by men only. Women wear colorful traditional clothes and men display gay colorful turbans. The dance is accompanied by the beats of 'Tasha', 'Nagada', and 'Dhol'.

Jhumar Dance – This dance is performed exclusively by women.

It takes its name from Jhumar, an ornament commonly worn on the forehead by young married women. The dance is performed to the beats of dholak and thali.

Khoria Dance –This dance is popular in the central areas of Haryana. This dance is performed by women at the house of the bridegroom in the night on which the marriage party has gone to the bride's house. By this dance the women ask for the safe and sound return of the marriage party along with the newly wed couple.

Himachal Pradesh

Teej Dance – This dance is performed by women on the Teej festival. Women and girls enjoy themselves on outdoor swings and sing.

Kinnauri Nati - The dance is mainly a mime but also incorporates some abstract but languid sequences. Important among the dances of Nati is 'Losar shona chuksom', which takes its name from Losai, or the New Year. The dance depicts all the activities involved in sowing the crop and reaping it.

Namgen

Dance – The Namagen dance is performed in the month of September to celebrate the autumn. They were costumes which are largely woolen and studded with ornaments of silver. They are worn by women. Mostly men and women dance together. They are close to each other in this.

Chhanak Cham Dance – This dance is performed by the lama‗s of Lahaul Spiti and this dance to please the Gods is performed at the Chakhar Festival, every three years. The word Chhanak originates from the headgear worn by the dancers.

Dhandras Dance –Dandras is a traditional dance performed by the men of 'Gaddi' tribe i.e. the nomadic shepherd tribe belonging to the Bharmaur region of the Chamba district. The dance is performed with small sticks and can last for hours at a time.

Jammu and Kashmir

Kud Dance - Kud is basically a ritual dance performed in honor of Lok Devatas. This is a kind of thanks-giving ritual based dance performed mostly during nights. It is a typical community dance, performed in the middle mountain ranges of the Jammu region.

Dhumal Dance -Dumhal Dance The famous folk dance of the Kashmiri people is called as Dumhal. Generally, this dance is performed with wearing long colourful robes, tall conical caps. Their caps or costumes are studded with beads and shells. Only the men folk of the Wattal are privileged to perform this dance on specific occasions.

Jharkhand

Chhau Dance - Chhou dance is mostly performed in the open space or ground field during the night. Generally, fire poles called as mashaal surround the dance arena. They are for lighting purpose. ORS & CHG

Paika Dance – dance form where martial arts is mixed with local dance steps. This dance form is only performed by the male members . Paika is known as a ceremonial martial dance of Jharkhand and Bihar – Odissa

Phagua Dance -This is a dance that is performed by the males during the time of Hindu festival of Holi. This dance is mostly performed by men but women also join them occasionally.

Santhal Dance - Santhal dance is generally performed by both the men and women of the Santhali tribe. It often covers issues related to gender and land rights.

Karnataka

Yakshagana -Yakshgana involves the use of recitative modes of poetry sung in loud voice, melodies of music, rhythm, and dance techniques and above all, costuming and graceful make up. It does not contain a highly elaborate language of hand gestures and eye- gestures.

Dhollu Kunita – Only the men of the shepherd community popularly called as the Kuruba community is privileged for the performance of this dance. The Dollu Kunitha is characterized by vigorous drumbeats, quick dancing movements and synchronized group formations.

Veeragasse Dance -It is a vigorous dance based on Hindu mythology and involves very intense energy-sapping dance movements. Veeragase is one of the dances demonstrated in the Dasara procession held in Mysore. This dance is performed during festivals and mainly in the Hindu months of Shravana and Karthika.

Kerala

Gorava Kunitha – dance form where martial arts is mixed with local dance steps. This dance form is only performed by the male members .

KOLKALI Dance - group dance performed by men to the rhythmic music created by the beating of two sticks. The most popular folk dance in the islands, Kolkali starts at a low pace and becomes faster as the music gains momentum. Each island has a number of dancing groups performing Kolkali.

Kaikotti Kali –Thiruvathirakali.It is a very popular, graceful and symmetric group-dance performed by the women of Kerala.It is ceremonial dance often performed during festive seasons like Thiruvathira and Onam.

Kutthiyottam - one of the main offering at the Chettikulangara Devi Temple.It is a ritualistic symbolic representation of human bali (Human Sacrifice). Young two boys between 8 to 14 years are taught Kuthiyottam, a ritual dance in the house amidst a big social gathering before the portrait of the deity.

Kakkarisi Kali – This dance is prevalent among the Kuravas of Thiruvananthapuram district. This is group dance performed with enthusiasm. It is very vociferous because of the shouting of the participants.

Kolam Thullal - Kolam

Thullal is a ritual dance form prevalent in south Kerala, southern India. It is customary in houses and temples of Bhagavathy, a female deity. It is performed at temple festivals and to drive away evil spirits from the "possessed" bodies. Its origins lie with the Tinta group of the Kaniyar caste

Theeyattam – Thiyyattu is a devotional offering performed

only in Bhadrakali temples. A group of performers known as

Thiyyattunnis are privileged to perform it.

Madhya Pradesh

Maanch Dance -lyrical folk drama and a form of operatic ballet that is very popular in Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. The presentation style & technique of the Maanch, its various thematic elements, & suitable music and gaudy costumes all contribute in making this play a unique one.

Matki Dance –This is a community dance of the Malwa, Matki is performed by the women on various occasions. The dancers move rhythmically to the beating of a drum, locally called Matki.

Maharashtra

Koli Dance – Kolis . The dance is performed by both men and women divided into two groups, where fishermen stand in two rows holding oars in their hands. The dancers move in unison, portraying the movement of the rowing of a boat. Fisherwomen are in the opposite rows with their arms linked and advancing towards men folk.

Dindi Dance -Dindi is performed during ekadashi day in the month of Kartik in Maharashtra. Dindi is a small drum used by the musicians during the performance of this dance form. The musicians in the centre that comprises of a Mridangam player and a vocalist, balances the rhythm of the dancers.

Tamasha - Kolhati and Mahar communities are associated with Tamasha. The poet singers known as shahirs, composed many narrative and love songs for Tamasha. The word tamasha in Persian language means fun and entertainment. The word tamasha in Persian language means fun and entertainment.

Lavani Dance -Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the beats of Dholki, a percussion instrument. Lavani is noted for its powerful rhythm. Lavani has contributed substantially to the development of Marathi folk theatre

Manipur

Pung Cholom -Pung Cholom is also known as Mrindanga Kirtan or Dhumal or Dram dance. This dance is performed with a drum, Mrindanga. This dance performed by only males either as integral parts of Nata Sankirtan

Khamba Thoibi – It is a duet performance describing the story of a poor and brave lad of the Khuman Clan of Khamba. It shows dedication to the sylvan deity known as Thangjing of Moirang

Maibi Dance -Maibi dance is performed during the celebration of festival Lai Haraoba, which is an annual ritual festival of the Meitei Manipuris, living in the valley of Manipur. Lai Haraoba refers to frolic of the gods.

Nupa Dance – It is normally performed by male performers using cymbals and wearing white Pheijom (Dhoti) and spherical Turbans, who sing and dance to the rhythm of Pung (Mridanga)

Meghalaya

Nongkrem Dance -Nongkrem Dance is a religious festival in thanksgiving to God Almighty for good harvest, peace and prosperity of the community. It is held annually during October

- November, at Smit, the capital of the Khyrim Syiemship near Shillong.

Laho Dance – Laho dance is a part of the festivities of Behdienkhlam. Behdienkhlam is a celebration for the prosperity and well being of the people of Meghalaya.

Mizoram

Khuallam Dance -Khuallam literary means 'Dance of the Guests'. It is a dance usually performed in the ceremony called 'Khuangchawi'. In order to claim a distinguished place in the society and to have a place in paradise or Pialral one has to attain the coveted title of 'Thangchhuah'.

Cheraw Dance – Bamboo Dance . Dancers hold two pairs of bamboos across one another on the ground. It is most famous dance in Mizoram and a center for attraction during festive occasions in Mizoram. Similar dances are found in Far East and in the Philippines

Nagaland

Chang Lo Dance -This dance of the Chang tribe of Nagaland was performed to celebrate the victory over enemies in the earlier times. Presently, it forms a part of all the community celebrations, such as Poanglem, a three day festival preceding the harvest season. There are dramatic costumes of the traditional Naga warrior and finery of womenfolk.

Naga Dance (Zemis)

– Zemis‗s thumping

to thunderous beats in their traditional war dance

Orissa

Prahlad Natak -originated in Ganjam District. Prahlad Nataka is considered as a form of traditional theatre famous in this region. It is a one-play repertoire, famous in the southern district of Orissa but commenced in Ganjam.

Medha Dance – This is a mask-dance most common during the religious processions in the coastal districts of Orissa. During Dusserah, Dol Purnima (Holi), Kalipooja, Rama Navami, Sahi Yatra and other festivals when the idols are taken out in procession for congregation (Melan) or immersion, mask-dancers join the procession.

Ghumura Nacha –

Dance form

is actually named after a kind of drum,

the Ghumar that is played with it. The drum which looks like

a barrel made of clayand the mouth is covered with the

skin of a reptile (Godhi), produces a deep musical sound. This dance starts fifteen days before the Gamha

Purnima, full moon in September.

Kathi Nacha -In Orissa they are of two varieties, one with comparatively long sticks and the other with short sticks. The former with long sticks is performed by the cowherd community of coastal Orissa.

Punjab

Bhangra –Among the most virile, vigorous and captivating dances of India, Bhangra includes tricks and acrobatic feats in its performance. The songs include recitation of meaningless `bolis`, words such as hoay, hoay. Or Balle, Balle... .

Giddha Dance – Giddha dance is considered as originated from West Punjab. During Lohri occasion, the Punjabi women reveal their joy, give vent to their suppressed feelings in a male dominated society through the Giddha.

Teeyan Dance –`Teeyan` is the women`s dance festival celebrated in allover Punjab. The dance usually takes place on the bank of any river or pond under big shady trees, where women gather. Swings are thrown over the branches and singing, swinging and dancing starts

Luddi Dance – a male folk dance of Punjab. It is danced to celebrate a victory or success that is gained in any field. Its costumes are simple. Only a loose shirt (kurta) and a loincloth are used. Some tie a turban, other the Patka which is somewhat like a scarf tied across the forehead, while still others join in bareheaded.

Rajasthan

Ghoomer Dance –Ghoomer dance is a community dance of women in Rajasthan. It is performed on various auspicious occasions like fairs & festivals. It is the famous dance of Rajasthan. It is called as`Ghoomer`, from the `ghoomna` of ghaghra i.e. the flowing of ghaghra, a long skirt of the Rajasthani women. Bhil Tribe

Terahtali Dance –performed by women folk in a sitting posture. The women have `Manjeeras` i.e.little brass discs that are tied with long strings to their body. Manjeeras are tied on their wrists, elbows, waists, arms and a pair in their hands as well.

Gair Dance –The "gair" of Mewar has inner and outer

circles of dancers who move diagonally or loop in and out. It is intricate and fascinating.

Fire Dance-An authentic fire dance is performed by the 'jasnathis' of Bikaner and Churu districts. The accompanying music rises in tempo as the dance progresses, ending with the performer dancing on brightly glowing embers, which is a breathtaking and deeply impressive sight

Sikkim

Yak and Singhi Cham - Yak Chaam is a tribute to Yak, an animal at whom man relies for survival at high altitudes. Singhi Chaam is an important dance form, which is linked with five peaks of Mount Kanchunjunga forming an image of snow lion

Rechungma Dance – This folk dance form is performed accompanied by devotional hymns and songs. The dance folk and the songs accompanying them tell the uses of the majestic bamboos.

Tamil Nadu

Karagam -The villagers in praise of the rain goddess "Mari Amman" and river goddess "Gangai Amman perform this dance as a part of their custom

.In this dance, balancing of water pot on the head is done beautifully. It is believed that Karagam is originated in Thanjavur, a village in Tamilnadu.

Kavadi Attam –Dressed in bright yellow or saffron robes, devotees performing kavadiyattam smear vibhoothi or sacred ash all over their

body. Each one carries on his shoulder an ornate Kavadi - a huge bow, richly decorated with peacock feathers, (it is believed that the peacock is the vehicle of Sree Subramanya). Kavadiyattam literally means dance carrying a kavadi. Kavadies are usually of different sizes and shapes, each with its own significance.

Telangana

Kai Silambu Attam- This dance is performed in temples during Amman festivals or Navaratri festival. The dancers wear ankle-bells and hold anklets or silambu in their hands, which make noise when shaken. They perform various stepping styles jumps. The dance is in praise of all female deities, the most preferred being the powerful angry goddess - Kali or Durga.

Bommalattam - Puppet shows are held in every village during festivals and fairs. Many different kinds of puppets are used for this show - cloth, wood, leather, etc. They are manipulated through strings or wires. The puppeteers stand behind a screen and the puppets are held in front.

Dhamal Dance - Dhamal is one of the typical & ceremonial dance forms of Siddis of Hyderabad region. It is a mimetic martial dance performed by Siddis. They use swords and shields held in their hands while performing various steps involved in the dance. .

Mathuri Dance -The Mathuri dances are special tribal dances of the Mathuri tribes of Adilabad. It is a dance in which men and women folk participate together, women participants forming the inner circle and men the outer semi-circle. Devotional and Secular

Tripura

Gariya Dance - Goria Mwsamung . Shiva God . Dance of Tripuri people has derived from Goria form of dance. This dance has some 108 mudras in original as stated by famous dance exponent of Tripura Smt. Padmini Chakrabarty.

Hojagiri Dance – Reang People. It is performed by women and young girls, about 4 to 6 members in a team, singing, balancing on an earthen pitcher and managing other props such as a bottle on the head and earthen lamp on the hand, while only the lower half of the body is moved.

Uttar Pradesh

Charkula Dance - Performed in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh. In the performance of Charkula, veiled women with balancing a large multi-tiered circular wooden pyramid on their heads, dance in various steps. The wooden pyramid is lighted with 108 oil lamps.

Nautanki - Nautanki is a famous folk theater and operatic dram form, popular in northern India especially in Uttar Pradesh.

Nautanki consists of folklore and mythological dramas with interludes of folk songs and dances Naqaal - Naqaal of Uttar Pradesh is the art of imitation, where the artists try to imitate life in a manner that provokes violent laughter among the audience. Naqaal artists exhibit their art through crisp conversational dialogues, which plays the role of

instruction, apart from entertaining its viewers.

Raslila - Raslila is also known as Braj Raslila. It is originated from Braj area in Agra Region of Uttar Pradesh. It is a theatrical form perfor med now in many States of India. This performance is reveals around the life of Lord Krishna.

West Bengal

Brita Dance/Vrita is actually a traditional folk dance of West Bengal. It is generally performed by the barren women of the state, in order to invoke the blessings of the Gods, so that their wishes for a child are fulfilled. After getting their wishes are granted, the women again dance in the temple premises, to appease the deity and thank him for his blessings. The dance is also performed after recovery from a life threatening crisis or a contagious disease, like small pox or chicken pox. It is still prevalent in rural Bengal.

Ghambira Dance –popular in North Bengal, especially in Malda district. The characters of the dance represent Puranic deities like Shiva, Parvati, Kali, etc. A big drum known as `dhak` serves as a supporting instrument for music.

Tusu Dance - Tusu is a folk dance performed mostly in-group. It is performed by both men and women. This is tribal dance performed during the harvest festival to celebrate the coming Crop. It is popular in Purulia and Medinipur.

Jatra - Jatra is a famous form of folk

theatre from the eastern region of India. Jatra is the traditional theatre form of West Bengal. It is the enactment of a play. And performed with a cast and also comprises of music, dance, acting, singing and dramatic conflict in its performance.

CHAPTER-3 CINEMA OF INDIA

The Cinema of India consists of films produced in the nation of India. Cinema is immensely popular in India, with as many as 1,800 films produced in various languages every year. Indian cinema produces more films watched by more people than any other country; in 2011, over 3.5 billion tickets were sold across the globe, 900,000 more than Hollywood. As of 2013 India ranked first in terms of annual film output, followed by Nigeria, Hollywood and China. In 2012, India produced 1,602 feature films. The Indian film industry reached overall revenues of $1.86

billion (₹93 billion) in 2011. In 2015, India had a total box office gross of US$2.1 billion, third largest in the world. Indian cinema is a global enterprise. Its films have a following throughout Southern Asia, and across Asia, Europe, the Greater Middle East, North America, Eastern Africa, China and elsewhere, reaching in over 90 countries.

v Origins of Cinema

The history of cinema in India extends back to the beginning of the film era. The Indian film Industry is the 2nd oldest. Following the screening of the Lumière and Robert Paul moving pictures in London (1896), animated photography became a worldwide sensation and by mid-1896 both Lumière and Robert Paul films had been shown in Bombay.

1910s–1920s

The first Indian film released in India was Shree Pundalik, a silent film in Marathi by Dadasaheb Torne on 18 May 1912 at Coronation Cinematograph, Bombay. Some have argued that

Pundalik was not the first Indian film, because it was a photographic recording of a play, and because the cameraman was a British man named Johnson and the film was processed in London.

The first full-length motion picture in India was produced by Dadasaheb Phalke, Phalke is seen as the pioneer of the Indian film industry and a scholar of India's languages and culture. He employed elements from Sanskrit epics to produce his R aja Harishchandra (1913), a silent film in Marathi. The female characters in the film were played by male actors. Only one print of the film was made, for showing at the Coronation Cinematograph on 3 May 1913. It was a commercial success. The first silent film in Tamil, Keechaka Vadham was made by R. Nataraja Mudaliar in 1916.

The first chain of Indian cinemas, Madan Theatre was owned by Parsi entrepreneur Jamshedji Framji Madan, who oversaw production of 10 films annually and distributed them throughout India beginning in 1902. He founded Elphinstone Bioscope Company in Calcutta. Elphinstone merged into Madan Theatres Limited in 1919, which had brought many of Bengal's most popular literary works to the stage. He also produced Satyawadi Raja Harishchandra in 1917, a remake of Phalke's Raja Harishchandra (1913).

Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu was an Indian artist and a film pioneer. From 1909, he was involved in many aspects of Indian cinema, travelling across Asia. He was the first to build and own cinemas in Madras. He was credited as the father of Telugu cinema. In South India, the first Tamil talkie Kalidas was released on 31 October 1931. Nataraja Mudaliar established South India's first film studio in Madras.

Film steadily gained popularity across India. Tickets were affordable to the masses (as low as an anna (one-sixteenth of a rupee) in Bombay) with additional comforts available at a higher price. Young producers began to incorporate elements of Indian social life and culture into cinema. Others brought ideas from across the world. Global audiences and markets soon became aware of India's film industry.

In 1927, the British Government, to promote the market in India for British films over American ones, formed the Indian Cinematograph Enquiry Committee. The ICC consisted of three Brits and three Indians, led by T. Rangachari, a Madras lawyer. This committee failed to support the desired recommendations of supporting British Film, instead recommending support for the fledgling Indian film industry. Their suggestions were shelved.

1930s- 1940s

Ardeshir Irani released Alam Ara, the first Indian talkie, in March 1931. Irani later produced the first south Indian talkie film Kalidas directed by H. M. Reddy released on 31 October 1931. Jumai Shasthi was the first Bengali talkie. Chittor V. Nagaiah, was one of the first multilingual film actor/singer/ composer/producer

/directors in India. He was known as India's Paul Muni. In 1932, the name "Tollywood" was coined for the Bengali film industry because Tollygunge rhymed with "Hollywood". Tollygunge was then the centre of the Indian film industry. Bombay later overtook Tollygunge as the industry's center,

spawning "Bollywood" and many other Hollywood-inspired names.

In 1933, East India Film Company produced its first Telugu film, Savitri. Based on a stage play by Mylavaram Bala Bharathi Samajam, the film was directed by C. Pullaiah with stage actors Vemuri Gaggaiah and Dasari Ramathilakam. The film received an honorary diploma at the 2nd Venice International Film Festival.

76

In 1935, another pioneer film maker Jyoti Prasad Agarwala made his first film 'Joymoti' in Assamese. Jyoti Prasad went to Berlin to learn

more about films. Indramalati is another film he himself produced and directed after Joymoti. The first film studio in South India, Durga Cinetone, was built in 1936 by Nidamarthi Surayya in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh. The 1930s saw the rise of music in Indian cinema with musicals such as Indra Sabha and Devi-Devyani marking the beginning of song- and- dance in Indian films.

Studios emerged by 1935 in major cities such as Madras, Calcutta and Bombay as filmmaking became an established craft, exemplified by the success of Devdas directed by an Assamese film maker Pramathesh Baruah. In 1937, Kisan Kanhiya directed by Moti B was released, the first colour film made in India. The 1940 film, Vishwa Mohini, is the first Indian film to depict the Indian movie world. The film was directed by Y.

V. Rao and scripted by Balijepalli Lakshmikanta Kavi.

Swamikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of "Tent Cinema" in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land to screen films. The first of its kind was in Madras, called Edison's Grand Cinemamegaphone. This was due to the fact that electric carbons were used for motion picture projectors. Bombay Talkies opened in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune began production of Marathi films meant.

R. S. D. Choudhury produced Wrath (1930), which was banned by the British Raj for its depiction of Indian actors as leaders during the Indian independence movement. Sant Tukaram, a 1936 film based on the life of Tukaram (1608–50), a VarkariSant and spiritual poet became the first Indian film to be screened at an international film festival, at the 1937 edition of the Venice Film Festival. The film was judged one of the three best films of the year. In 1938, Gudavalli Ramabrahmam, co-produced and directed the social problem film, Raithu Bidda, which was also banned by the British administration, for depicting the peasant uprising among the Zamindars during the British raj.

The Indian Masala film—a term used for mixed-genre films that combined song, dance, romance etc.—arose following World War II. During the 1940s cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema halls and cinema came to be viewed as an instrument of cultural revival. The partition of India following independence divided the nation's assets and a number of studios moved to Pakistan.

Partition became an enduring film subject thereafter.

After Indian independence the film industry was investigated by the S.

K. Patil Commission. Patil recommended setting up a Film Finance Corporation (FFC) under the Ministry of Finance. This advice was adopted in 1960 and FFC provide financial support to filmmakers. The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1948, which eventually became one of the world's largest documentary film producers with an annual production of over 200 short

documentaries, each released in 18 languages with 9,000 prints for permanent film theatres across the country.

The Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), an art movement with a communist inclination, began to take shape through the 1940s and the 1950s. Realist IPTA plays, such as Nabanna (1944, Bijon Bhattacharya) prepared the ground for realism in Indian cinema, exemplified by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas's Dharti Ke Lal (Children of the Earth) in 1946. The IPTA movement continued to emphasize realism and went on to produce Mother

India and Pyaasa, among India's recognizable cinematic productions.

The Golden Age

The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Indian cinema

T2his period saw the emergence of the Parallel Cinema movement, mainly led by Bengalis, which then accounted for a quarter of India's film output. The Parallel Cinema movement emphasized on social realism. Early examples of parallel cinema include Dharti Ke Lal (1946,

Khwaja Ahmad Abbas), Neecha Nagar (1946, Chetan Anand), Nagarik (1952, Ritwik Ghatak) and Do Bigha Zamin (1953, Bimal Roy), laying the foundations for Indian neorealism and the Indian New Wave.

The Apu Trilogy in the period of 1955–195 by Satyajit Ray won major prizes at all the major international film festivals and firmly recognized the Parallel Cinema movement. Pather Panchali (1955), the first part of the trilogy, marked Ray's entry in Indian cinema. The trilogy's influence on world cinema can be felt in the "youthful coming-of-age dramas that flooded art houses since the mid-fifties", which "owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy".

Cinematographer Subrata Mitra, who debuted in the trilogy, had his own important influence on cinematography globally. One of his most important techniques was bounce lighting, to recreate the effect of daylight on sets. He pioneered the technique while

filming Aparajito(1956), the second part of the trilogy. Ray pioneered other effects such as the photo- negative flashbacks and X ray digressions in Pratidwandi (1972).

During the 1960s, Indira Gandhi's intervention during her reign as the Information and Broadcasting Minister of India supported production of off-beat cinematic by FFC. Commercial Hindi cinema began thriving, including acclaimed films Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959,

Guru Dutt) Awaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955, Raj Kapoor). These films expressed social themes mainly

dealing with working-class urban life in India; Awaara presented the city as both a nightmare and a dream, while Pyaasa critiqued the unreality of city life.

Epic film Mother India (1957, Mehboob Khan), a remake of his earlier Aurat (1940), was the first Indian film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Mother India defined the conventions of Hindi cinema for decades. It spawned a new genre of dacoit films. Gunga Jumna(1961, Dilip Kumar) was a dacoit crime drama about two brothers on opposite sides of the law, a theme that became common in Indian films in the 1970s. Madhumati (1958, Bimal Roy) popularised the theme of reincarnation in Western popular culture.

Dilip Kumar (Muhammad Yusuf Khan) debuted in the 1940s and rose to fame in the 1950s and was one of the biggest Indian movie stars. Also known as the Tragedy King, he is credited with bringing realism to film acting since his first film which was released in 1944. He was a pioneer of method acting, predating Hollywood method actors such as Marlon Brando. Much like Brando's influence on New Hollywood actors, Kumar inspired Indian actors, including Amitabh Bachchan, Naseeruddin Shah, Shah Rukh Khan and

Nawazuddin Siddiqui.

Neecha Nagar won the Palme d'Or at Cannes, putting Indian films in competition for the Palme d'Or for nearly every year in the 1950s and early 1960s, with many winning major prizes. Ray won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Aparajito (1956) and the Golden Bear and two Silver Bears for Best Director at the Berlin International Film Festival. The films of screenwriter Khwaja Ahmad Abbas were nominated for the Palme d'Or three times. (Neecha Nagar won, with

nominations for Awaara and Pardesi (1957).

Ray's contemporaries Ritwik Ghatak and Guru Dutt were overlooked in their own lifetimes, but generated international recognition in the 1980s and 1990s. Ray is regarded as one of the greatest auteurs of 20th century cinema, with Dutt and Ghatak.

South Indian cinema saw the production works based on the epic Mahabharata, such as Mayabazar (listed by IBN Live's

2013 Poll as the greatest Indian film of all time). Sivaji Ganesan became India's first actor to receive an international award when he won the "Best Actor" award at the Afro-Asian film festival in 1960 and was awarded the title of Chevalier in the Legion of Honour by the French Government in 1995. Tamil cinema was influenced by Dravidian politics, with prominent

film personalities C N Annadurai, M G Ramachandran, M Karunanidhi and Jayalalithaa becoming Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu.

v Contemporary Indian cinema

Realistic Parallel Cinema continued throughout the 1970s, practiced in many Indian film cultures. The FFC's art film orientation came under criticism during a Committee on Public Undertakings investigation in 1976, which accused the body of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema.

Hindi commercial cinema continued with films such as Aradhana (1969), Sachaa Jhutha (1970), Haathi Mere Saathi (1971), Anand (1971), Kati-Patang (1971) AmarPrem(1972)

By the early 1970s, Hindi cinema was undergoing thematic stagnation, dominated by musical romance films. The arrival of screenwriter duo Salim- Javed, consisting of Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar, revitalized the industry. They established the genre of gritty, violent, Bombay underworld crime films, with films such as Zanjeer (1973) and Deewaar (1975). They reinterpreted the rural themes of Mother India and Gunga Jumna in an urban context reflecting 1970s India, channeling the growing discontent and disillusionment among the masses, unprecedented growth of slums and urban poverty, corruption and crime, as well as anti- establishment themes. This resulted in their creation of the "angry young man", personified by Amitabh Bachchan, who reinterpreted Kumar's performance in Gunga Jumna, and gave a voice to the urban poor.

By the mid-1970s, crime-action films like Zanjeer and Sholay (1975) solidified Bachchan's position as a lead actor. The devotional classic Jai Santoshi Ma (1975) was made on a shoe- string budget and became a box office success and a cult classic. Another important film was Deewaar (1975, Yash Chopra). This crime film pitted "a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on the real-life smuggler Haji Mastan", portrayed by Bachchan. Danny Boyle described it as "absolutely key to Indian cinema".

"Bollywood" was named in the 70s, when the conventions of commercial Bollywood films were established. Key to this was Nasir Hussain and Salim-Javed's creation of the masala film genre, which combines elements of action, comedy, romance, drama, melodrama and musical.

Another Hussain/Salim-Javed concoction, Yaadon Ki Baarat(1973), was identified as the first masala film and the "first" quintessentially "Bollywood" film. Salim-Javed wrote more successful masala films in the 1970s and 1980s. Masala films made Bachchan the biggest Bollywood movie star of the period. Another landmark was Amar Akbar Anthony (1977, Manmohan Desai). Desai further expanded the genre in the 1970s and 1980s. From Sholay to Deewaar, the masala films also emphasised on strong dialogues like ― Kitne aadmi they‖ of Sholay and ―Mere Paas maa hey‖. Many dialogues of this era became cult classics of cinema in the 90s.

Salim-Javed was highly influential in South Indian cinema. In addition to writing two Kannada films, many of their Bollywood

films had remakes produced in other regions, including Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam cinema. While the Bollywood directors and producers held the rights to their films in Northern India, Salim- Javed retained the rights in South India, where they sold

remake rights, usually for around ₹1 lakh (equivalent to ₹27 lakh or US$42,000 in 2017) each, for films such as Zanjeer, Yaadon Ki Baarat and Don. Several of these remakes became breakthroughs for Rajinikanth, who portrayed Bachchan's role for several Tamil remakes.

Kannada film Samskara (1970, Pattabhirama Reddy), pioneered the parallel cinema movement in south Indian cinema. The film won Bronze Leopard at the Locarno International Film Festival. Telugu film Sankarabharanam (1980) dealt with the revival of Indian classical music and won the Prize of the Public at the 1981 Besancon Film Festival. Tamil-language films appeared at multiple film festivals. Kannathil Muthamittal (Ratnam), Veyyil (Vasanthabalan) and Paruthiveeran, Kanchivaram (2008) premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Tamil films were submitted by India for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language on eight occasions. Nayakan (1987, Kamal Hassan) was included in

Time magazine's "All-TIME" 100 best movies list. In 1991, Marupakkam directed by K.S. Sethu Madhavan, became the first Tamil film to win the National Film Award for Best Feature Film, the feat was repeated by Kanchivaram in 2008.

Malayalam cinema experienced its own Golden Age in the 1980s and early 1990s. Acclaimed Malayalam filmmakers industry, included Adoor

Gopalakrishnan, G. Aravindan , T. V. Chandran and Shaji N. Karun. Gopalakrishnan, is often considered to be Ray's spiritual heir. He directed some of his most acclaimed films during this period, including Elippathayam (1981) which won the Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival, as well as Mathilukal (1989) which won major prizes at the Venice Film Festival. Karun's debut film Piravi (1989) won the Camera d'Or at

the 1989 Cannes Film Festival, while his second film Swaham (1994) was in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 1994 event. Commercial Malayalam cinema began gaining popularity with the action films of Jayan, a popular stunt actor who died while filming a helicopter stunt. Sridevi is widely considered as the first female superstar of Indian cinema due to her pan- Indian appeal and a rare actor who had an equally successful career in the three major Indian film industries: Hindi, Tamil and Telugu, she's also the only movie star in history of Bollywood to star in the top 10 highest grossers of the year throughout her active period (1983-1997).

Commercial Hindi cinema grew in the 1980s, with films such as Ek Duuje Ke Liye (1981), Himmatwala (1983), Tohfa (1984), Nagina (1986), Mr India (1987), and Tezaab (1988). But by the late 1980s, Hindi cinema experienced a second phase of stagnation, with a decline in box office turnout, due to increasing violence, decline in musical melodic quality, and rise in video piracy, leading to middle-class family audiences

abandoning theaters. The turning point came with Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988), directed by Mansoor Khan, written and produced by his father Nasir Hussain, and starring his cousin Aamir Khan with Juhi Chawla. Its blend of youthfulness, wholesome entertainment, emotional quotients and strong melodies lured family audiences back to the big screen. It set a new template for Bollywood musical romance films that defined Hindi cinema in the 1990s.

Commercial Hindi cinema grew in the 1990s, with the release of Chaalbaaz (1989), Chandni(1989), Baazigar (1993), Darr (1993) Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994), Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995), Dil To Pagal Hai (1997), Pyar Kiya Toh Darna Kya (1998) and Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998). Cult classic Bandit Queen (1994, Shekhar Kapur) received international recognition and controversy. The period of Hindi cinema from the 1990s onwards is referred to as "New Bollywood" cinema, linked to economic liberalisation in India during the early 1990s. By the early 1990s, the pendulum had swung back toward family-centric romantic musicals.

By the late 1990s, Parallel Cinema began a resurgence in Hindi cinema, largely due to the critical and commercial success of crime film Satya(1998, Ram Gopal Varma). The film's success launched a genre known as Mumbai noir, urban films reflecting social problems there.. These films often featured actors like Nana Patekar and Manoj Bajpai, and actresses like Manisha Koirala, Tabu, Pooja Bhatt and Urmila Matondkar, whose performances were usually critically acclaimed.

Since the 1990s, the three biggest Bollywood movie stars have been the "Three Khans": Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan, and Salman Khan. Combined, they starred in the top ten highest- grossing Bollywood films. The three Khans have had successful careers since the late 1980s, and have dominated the Indian box

office since the 1990s. Shah Rukh Khan was the most successful for most of the 1990s and 2000s, while Aamir Khan has been the most successful since the late 2000s; according to Forbes, Aamir Khan is "arguably the world's biggest movie star" as of 2017, due to his immense popularity in India and China.

Other Hindi stars include Anil Kapoor, Madhuri Dixit and Kajol. Haider (2014, Vishal Bhardwaj), the third instalment of the Indian Shakespearean Trilogy after Maqbool (2003) and Omkara (2006), won the People's Choice Award at the 9th Rome Film Festival in the Mondo Genere category making it the first Indian film to achieve this honor.

In that point of time, action films and comedy films were also successful, with actors like Govinda, Sunny Deol, Sunil Shetty, Akshay Kumar, and Ajay Devgan, with Akshay Kumar gaining popularity for performing dangerous stunts in action films in his well- known Khiladi (film series) and other action films. Other actresses during this time included Raveena Tandon, Twinkle Khanna, Sonali Bendre, Sushmita Sen, Mahima Chaudhary and Shilpa Shetty.

Aamir Khan Productions has been credited for redefining and modernizing the masala film (which originated from his uncle Nasir Hussain's Yaadon Ki Baarat, which he first appeared in), with Aamir Khan's own distinct brand of socially conscious cinema in the early 21st century. His films blur the distinction between commercial masala films and realistic parallel cinema, combining the entertainment and production values of the former with the believable

narratives and strong messages of the latter, earning both commercial success and critical acclaim, in India and overseas.

The 2000s saw a growth in Bollywood's recognition across the world due to a growing and prospering NRI and Desi communities overseas. A fast growth in the Indian economy and a demand for quality entertainment in this era, led the nation's film-making to new heights in terms of production values, cinematography and innovative story lines as well as technical advances in areas such as special effects and animation. the 2010s also saw the rise of a new generation of popular actors like Ranbir Kapoor, Ranveer Singh, Varun Dhawan, Sidharth

Malhotra as well as actresses like Vidya Balan, Kangana Ranaut, Deepika Padukone, with Balan and Ranaut gaining wide recognition for successful female-centric films such as The Dirty Picture (2011), Kahaani (2012) and Queen (2014), and Tanu Weds Manu Returns (2015). Kareena Kapoor and Bipasha Basu are among the few working actresses from the 2000s who successfully completed 15 years in the industry.

Influences

There are Six major influences identified in Indian Cinema which evolves as a recurring theme.

The ancient Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana which have exerted a profound influence on the thought and imagination of Indian popular cinema, particularly in its narratives. Examples of this influence include the techniques of a side story, back- story and story within a story. Indian popular films often have plots which branch off into sub-plots; such narrative dispersals can clearly be seen in the 1993 films Khalnayak and Gardish.

Ancient Sanskrit drama, with its highly stylised nature and emphasis on spectacle, where music, dance and gesture combined "to create a vibrant artistic unit with dance and mime being central to the dramatic experience." Sanskrit dramas were known as natya, derived from the root word nrit (dance), characterising them as spectacular dance-dramas which has continued Indian cinema. The theory of rasa dating back to ancient Sanskrit drama is believed to be one of the most fundamental features that differentiate Indian cinema, particularly Hindi cinema, from that of the Western world.

The traditional folk theatre of India, which became popular from around the 10th century with the decline of Sanskrit theatre. These regional traditions include the Jatra of Bengal, the Ramlila of Uttar Pradesh, and the Terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu.

The Parsi theatre, which "blended realism and fantasy, music and dance, narrative and spectacle, earthy dialogue and ingenuity of stage presentation, integrating them into a dramatic discourse of melodrama. The Parsi plays contained crude humour, melodious songs and music, sensationalism and dazzling stagecraft."

Hollywood, where musicals were popular from the 1920s to the 1950s, though Indian filmmakers departed from their Hollywood counterparts in several ways. "For example, the Hollywood musicals had as their plot the world of entertainment itself. Indian filmmakers, while enhancing the elements of fantasy so pervasive in Indian popular

films, used song and music as a natural mode of articulation in a given situation in their films. There is a strong Indian tradition of narrating mythology, history, fairy stories and so on through song and dance." In addition, "whereas Hollywood filmmakers strove to conceal the constructed nature of their work so that the realistic narrative was wholly dominant, Indian filmmakers made no attempt to conceal the fact that what was shown on the screen was a creation, an illusion, a fiction. However, they demonstrated how this creation intersected with people's day to day lives in complex and interesting ways."

Western musical television, particularly MTV, which has had an increasing influence since the 1990s, as can be seen in the pace, camera angles, dance sequences and music of 2000s Indian films. An early example of this approach was in Mani Ratnam's Bombay (1995).

Like mainstream Indian popular cinema, Indian Parallel Cinema was influenced by a combination of Major Philosophical Schools and Indian literature (such as Bengali literature and Urdu poetry), but differs when it comes to foreign influences, where it is influenced more by European cinema (particularly Italian neorealism and French poetic realism) than by Hollywood. Ray cited Vittorio De Sica's Bicycle Thieves (1948) and Jean Renoir's The River (1951), on which he assisted, as influences on his debut film Pather Panchali (1955).

Regional Cinema

Bollywood represents 43% of Indian net box office revenue, while Telugu and Tamil cinema represent 36%, and the rest of the regional cinema constituted 21%, as of 2014. Regional Cinema developed parallel to mainstream Indian Cinema in different regional languages. Regional Cinema primarily catered the regional audience with alterations from main stream Genre and theme.

Bengali Cinema

The Bengali language cinematic tradition of Tollygunge located in West Bengal hosted masters such as Ray, Ritwik Ghatak and Sen. Recent Bengali films that have captured national attention include Choker Bali (Rituparno Ghosh) Bengal has produced science fiction and issue films.

Bengali cinema dates to the 1890s, when the first "bioscopes" were shown in theatres in Calcutta. Within five years, Hiralal Sen set up the Royal Bioscope Company, producing scenes from the stage productions of a number of popular shows at the Star Theatre, Calcutta, Minerva Theatre and Classic Theatre. Following a long gap after Sen, Dhirendra Nath Ganguly (Known as D.G.) established Indo British Film Co, the first Bengali owned production company, in 1918. The first Bengali Feature film Billwamangal was produced in 1919 under the banner of Madan Theatre. Bilat Ferat (1921) was the IBFC's first production. Madan Theatres production of Jamai Shashthi was the first Bengali talkie.

In 1932, the name "Tollywood" was coined for the Bengali film industry because Tollygunge rhymes with "Hollywood" and because it was then the centre of the Indian film industry. The 'Parallel Cinema' movement began in Bengal. Bengali stalwarts such as Ray, Mrinal Sen, Ghatak and others earned international acclaim. Actors including Uttam Kumar and Soumitra Chatterjee led the Bengali film industry. Other Bengali art film directors include Mir Shaani, Buddhadeb Dasgupta, Gautam Ghose, Sandip Ray and Aparna Sen.

Brajbhasha cinema

Braj Bhasha language films present Brij culture mainly to rural people, predominant in the nebulous Braj region centred around Mathura, Agra, Aligarh and Hathras in Western Uttar Pradesh and Bharatpur and Dholpur in Rajasthan. It is the predominant language in the central stretch of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in Uttar Pradesh. The first Brij Bhasha movie India was Brij Bhoomi (1982, Shiv Kumar), which was a success throughout the country. Later Brij Bhasha cinema saw the production of films like Jamuna Kinare, Brij Kau Birju, Bhakta Surdas and Jesus. The culture of Brij is presented in Krishna Tere Desh Main (Hindi), Kanha Ki Braj Bhumi, Brij ki radha dwarika ke shyam and Bawre Nain.

Bhojpuri Cinema

Bhojpuri language films predominantly cater to residents of western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh and also have a large audience in Delhi and Mumbai due to migration of Bhojpuri speakers to these cities. Besides India, markets for these films developed in other Bhojpuri speaking countries of the West Indies, Oceania and South America.

Bhojpuri film history begins with Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo (Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari, 1962, Kundan Kumar). Throughout the following decades, few films were produced. Films such as Bidesiya (Foreigner, 1963, S. N. Tripathi) and Ganga (Ganges, 1965, Kumar) were profitable and popular, but in general Bhojpuri films were not common in the 1960s and 1970s.

The industry experienced a revival in 2001 with the hit Saiyyan Hamar (My Sweetheart, Mohan Prasad), which shot Ravi Kissan to superstardom. This was followed by several other successes, including Panditji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi (Priest, tell me when I will marry, 2005, Prasad), and Sasura Bada Paisa Wala (My father-in-law, the rich guy, 2005.) Both did much better business in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar than mainstream Bollywood hits, and both earned more than ten times their production costs. Although smaller than other Indian film industries, these successes increased Bhojpuri cinema's visibility, leading to an awards show and a trade magazine, Bhojpuri City.

Tamil (Kollywood)

Chennai once served as a base for all South Indian films and is South India's second largest production centre.

The first south Indian talkie film Kalidas (H. M. Reddy) was shot in Tamil and Telugu. Sivaji Ganesan became India's first actor to receive an international award when he won Best Actor at the Afro-Asian film festival in 1960 and the title of Chevalier in the Legion of Honour by the French Government in 1995.

Tamil cinema is influenced by Dravidian politics, led by film personalities such as C N Annadurai, M G Ramachandran, M Karunanidhiand Jayalalithaa who became Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu. K. B. Sundarambal was the first film personality to enter a state legislature in India. She was also the first to command a salary of one lakh rupees.

Tamil films are distributed to various parts of Asia, Southern Africa, Northern America, Europe and Oceania. The industry inspired Tamil film-making in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada.

Rajnikanth is referred to as "Superstar" and holds matinee idol status in South India. The ₹26 crore (US$4.0 million) he earned for Sivaji(2007), made him the highest paid actor in Asia after Jackie Chan. Kamal Haasan debuted in Kalathur Kannamma for which he won the President's Gold Medal for Best Child Actor. Haasan is tied with Mammootty and Bachchan for the most Best Actor National Film Awards, with three. With seven submissions, Kamal Haasan has starred in the highest number of Academy Award submissions. Critically acclaimed composers such as Ilaiyaraaja and A. R. Rahman work in Tamil cinema. Art film directors include Santosh Sivan.

Telugu (Tollywood)

India's greatest number of theatres are located in Telangana / Andhra Pradesh and feature films in Telugu. In 2005, 2006 and 2008 the Telugu Film industry produced the largest number of films in India, releasing 268, 245 and 286 films, respectively. Ramoji Film City, which holds the Guinness World Record for the world's largest film production facility, is located in Hyderaba.The Prasad IMAX in Hyderabad is the world's largest 3D IMAX screen and is the world's most viewed screen. The highest-grossing Telugu movie is Baahubali 2: The Conclusion. Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu is considered the "father of Telugu cinema". The annual Raghupati Venkaiah Award was incorporated into the Nandi Awards to recognize contributions to the industry.

Chittor V. Nagaiah was the first multilingual Indian film actor, thespian, composer, director, producer, writer and playback singer. Nagaiah made significant contributions to Telugu cinema, and starred in some two hundred productions. Regarded as one of the finest Indian method actors, he was Telugu's first matinee idol. His forte was intense characters, often immersing himself in the character's traits and mannerisms. He was the first from South India to be honoured with the Padma Shri. He became known as India's Paul Muni. S. V. Ranga Rao was one of the first Indian actors to receive the international award at the Indonesian Film Festival, held in Jakarta, for Narthanasala in 1963. N. T. Rama Rao was one of the most successful Telugu actors of his time.

B. Narsing Rao, K. N. T. Sastry and Pattabhirama Reddy garnered international recognition for their pioneering work in Parallel Cinema. Adurthi Subba Rao won ten National Film Awards, Telugu cinema's highest individual awards, for his directorial work. N .T. Rama Rao was an Indian actor, producer, director, editor and politician who earned three National Film Awards. He served as Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh for seven years over three terms.

Bhanumathi Ramakrishna was a multilingual Indian film actress, drector, music director, singer, producer, author and songwriter. Widely known as the first female super star of Telugu cinema, she is also known for her work in Tamil cinema. Ghantasala Venkateswara Rao was an Indian film, composer, playback singer known for his works predominantly in Telugu cinema, and other languages. In 1970, he received the Padma Shri award.

S. P. Balasubramanyam holds the Guinness World Record of having sung the most number of songs for any male playback singer; the majority were in Telugu.

S. V. Ranga Rao, N. T. Rama Rao Kanta Rao, Bhanumathi Ramakrishna Savitri, Gummadi and

Sobhan Babu received the Rashtrapati Award for best performance in a leading role. Sharada, Archana, Vijayashanti, Rohini, Akkineni Nageswara Rao, and P. L. Narayana received the National Film Award for the best performance in acting. Chiranjeeviwas listed among "the men who changed the face of the Indian Cinema" by IBN-live India. Art film directors include K. N. T. Sastry, B. Narsing Rao, Akkineni Kutumba Rao and Deva Katta.

Malayalam Cinema

The Malayalam film industry, India's fourth largest, is based in Kochi. Malayalam films are known for bridging the gap between parallel cinema and mainstream cinema by portraying thought-provoking social issues with technical flair and low budgets. Film makers include Gopalakrishnan, Karun, Aravindan, K. G. George, Padmarajan, Sathyan Anthikad, Chandran an Bharathan.

The first full-length Malayalam feature was Vigathakumaran (1928, J. C. Daniel). This movie is credited as the first Indian social drama feature film. Daniel is considered the father of the Malayalam film industry. Balan (1938, S. Nottani) was the first Malayalam "talkie".

Malayalam films were mainly produced by Tamil producers until 1947, when the first major film studio, Udaya Studio, opened in Kerala. Neelakkuyil (1954) captured national interest by winning the President's silver medal. Scripted by the well-known Malayalam novelist, Uroob (P. Bhaskaran and Ramu Kariat) is often considered the first authentic Malayali film. Newspaper Boy(1955), made by a group of students, was the first neo- realistic film offering. Chemmeen (1965, Ramu Kariat) based on a story by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, became the first South Indian film to win the National Film Award for

Best Feature Film.[The first Indian 3D film My Dear Kuttichathan (1984) was made in Malayalam. The first CinemaScope film made in Malayalam was Thacholi Ambu (1978).Villain (2017) was the first Indian film to be shot entirely in 8K resolution.

The period from the late 1980s to early 1990s is regarded as the Golden Age of Malayalam cinema with the emergence of actors Mohanlal, Mammootty, Suresh Gopi, Jayaram, Bharath Gopi, Murali, Thilakan and Nedumudi Venu. The major actors who emerged after the Golden Age include Dileep, Jayasurya, Fahadh Faasil, Nivin Pauly, Prithviraj Sukumaran, Dulquer Salmaan, Kunchacko Boban and Asif Ali (actor) and Manju Warrier.

Notable filmmakers such as I. V. Sasi, Bharathan, Padmarajan, K. G. George, Sathyan Anthikad, Priyadarshan, A. K. Lohithadas, Siddique-Lal, T. K. Rajeev Kumar and Sreenivasan. Art film directors include Puttanna Kanagal, Dore Bhagavan, Siddalingaiah in Kannada; Gopalakrishnan, Karun and T.V. Chandran.

K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts (KRNNIVSA) is an autonomous institute established by the Government of Kerala at Thekkumthala in Kottayam District in Kerala state as a training-cum-research centre in film/audio- visual technology.

Awards

The Filmfare Awards ceremony is one of the most prominent film events given for Hindi films in India. The Indian screen magazine Filmfare started the first Filmfare Awards in 1954, and awards were given to the best films of 1953. The ceremony was referred to as the Clare Awards after the magazine's editor. Modelled after the poll-based merit format of the Academy of

Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, individuals may submit their votes in separate categories. A dual voting system was developed in 1956. The Filmfare awards are frequently accused of bias towards commercial success rather than artistic merit.

The National Film Awards were introduced in 1954. Since 1973, the Indian government has sponsored the National Film Awards, awarded by the government run Directorate of Film Festivals (DFF). The DFF screens not only Bollywood films, but films from all the other regional movie industries and independent/art films. These awards are handed out at an annual ceremony presided over by the President of India. Under this system, in contrast to the National Film Awards, which are decided by a panel appointed by Indian Government, the Filmfare Awards are voted for by both the public and a committee of experts.

Notable private awards ceremonies for Hindi films, held within India are: Filmfare Awards – since 1954

Screen Awards – since 1995

Stardust Awards – since 2003

Notable private awards ceremonies for Hindi films, held overseas are:

International Indian Film Academy Awards – (different country each year) – since 2000 Zee Cine Awards- (different country each year) – since 1998

v Film Education and Development

The Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) is an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government of India and aided by the Central Government of India. It is situated on the premises of the erstwhile Prabhat Film Company in Pune. Since its inception in 1960, FTII has become India's premier film and television institute, with its alumni becoming technicians, actors and directors in the film and television industry. Anupam Kher is the current Chairman of this institute.

FTII is a member of the International Liaison Centre of Schools of Cinema and Television (CILECT), an organisation of the world's leading schools of film and television. The Centre aims to set up a new Institute in Arunachal Pradesh as part of an initiative to tap the potential of the North Eastern region.

Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute (SRFTI) is a film and television institute located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India.

The institute was established in 1995, and registered as a Society on 18 August 1995 under the West Bengal Societies Registration Act, 1961 and currently is an autonomous society funded by Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. It has been named after the acclaimed film director, Satyajit Ray.

SRFTI is the premier institute of India for film training which stands in line with Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) for its quality of education and reputation in the Indian film industry and a member of CILECT (International Liaison Centre of Schools of Cinema and Television), an organization of the world's leading schools of film and television. In 2014, the Union Government proposed to give 'Centre of National Excellence' status to SRFTI.

National Institute of Film and Fine Arts (NIFFA) was founded by Late Dhiresh Ghosh, former head of the Department of Direction, FTII, and Pune. NIFFA is a registered non-profit making society (Affiliated by Federation of Film Societies of India & Member of National Film Archive GOVT. of India) devoted to career development programmes in the film industry and allied fields.

At present the institute runs courses in a wide range of subjects like acting, direction, videography, non-linear editing, dance, modelling, news reading & anchoring, journalism, etc. to name a few. NIFFA has also started courses in multimedia, 2d and 3d animation among other things.

NIFFA is a member of National Film Archives of India, Pune and hence enjoys all the facilities for the screening of world classics from time to time. These films in fact are used as text films and are analysed in detail by veteran teachers.

The institute arranges for the participation of students in seminars and festivals, and grants Diplomas and Certificates.

The Asian Academy of Film & Television (AAFT) is a film school located in India's Noida Film City in the National Capital Region and popular for film studies. It is affiliated with the International Film & Television Research Center and the Marwah Films & Video Studios.

Approved as an international-level training center by City & Guilds in 2002, the school was the first of its kind to receive ISO 9001:2000 certification in the South Asian region. The AAFT has students from 100 countries, enrolling to join the 12000 alumni. The Asia- Europe Foundation has stated on the Internet that the AAFT is the "strongest media training centre in Asia".

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CHAPTER-4 VEDIC LITERATURE

v Vedic Literature – Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva

The word Veda is derived from the root ‗vid‗, which means to know. Thus the term Veda signifies ‗superior knowledge‗. The Vedic literature is divided into two parts: the srutis and the Smriti. The srutis are the four Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and the Atharva Veda the Upanishads, and the smritis are the Puranas like the Mahabharata, which includes Bhagavad- gita.

The Vedic literature is roughly divided into three periods:-

1. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed

2. The Brahman period when the Brahmanas, Upanishads, and Aranyakas were composed

3. The Sutra period.

Vedic literature means literature based on or derived from the Vedas. The texts which constitute the Vedic literature are:

The four Vedas i.e. Samhitas,

The Brahmanas attached to each of the Samhitas, The Aranyakas

The Upanishads Vedas:

The Vedas are probably the earliest documents of the human mind and said to have divine revelation. They are divided into

a) Rig Veda:

Rigveda is regarded as the sacred text of Hinduism. It has fascinated the scholars and historians due to its significance. It is a collection of ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns.

The Rigveda is further divided into ten parts known as Mandalas Rigveda has a collection of 10,600 verses and 1,028 hymns It is the oldest text in any Indo-European language Its origin can be dated back to 1700 BCE-1100 BCE. Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyasa,

The Rishi family of Angira has composed 35% of the hymns and the Kanva family composed around 25%.

Many verses of the Rig Veda are still being used as a very significant part of Hindu prayers and rituals.

As per the Rig Vedic hymns, the entire universe has originated from Prajapati, (the initial God can be compared to Zeus in Grek mythology) and this forms the principle basis of creation.

The hymns are known as Suktas which are generally used in rituals. Indra is the chief deity (King of Kingdom of heaven) cited in the hymns of Rig Veda.

The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of the other chief deities mentioned in various hymns of the Rig veda.

There is some emphasis on lord Shiva but Lord Vishnu who is one of the Trimurti of Hindu Pantheon of Gods is cited as a minor deity, according to the Rig Veda.

It contains the famous Purushasukta that explains that the four varnas (Castes) (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, belly and the legs of the Creator This was the origin of the caste system which is still practiced in modern Hindu society with some modifications.

b) Sama Veda

It is also called as the book of prayers or ―storehouse of knowledge of chants‖. It is a mixture of poetry and verse. It is divided into two parts: Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. Taiteriya Samhita is related to Krishna Yajurveda. Vajseniya Samhita is related to Shukla Yajurveda. The maximum number of commentaries is written on Yajur Veda.

The Samaveda consists of 1,549 unique verses, taken from Rigveda, except for 75 verses which are new.

Its Samhita, or metrical portion, consists chiefly of hymns to be chanted by the Udgatar priests at the performance of any important sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant is mixed with milk and other ingredients and offered to various deities.

There is no exact date when the compilation of the Samaveda Hymns was done, nor as to who has composed it. It was deemed unnecessary in the early times when the Aryans first invaded India, but was required for guidance and use after their expansion and settlement in their new homes.

c) Yajur Veda:

The Vedic collection of sacrificial prayers (yajus) used by the Adhvaryu priest. Of the four Vedas, it most reflects the Vedic sacrifice in its ritual character and full scope.

The Yajur Veda prescribes the procedures to be adopted at the time of performing different sacrifices.

There Yajur Veda has two major divisions: the Black Yajur Veda(Krishna) existing in four versions and the White Yajur Veda(shukla) existing in two versions.

The term ―black‖ implies ―the un-arranged collection‖ of verses in contrast to the ―white‖ which implies the well arranged and clear‖ Yajurveda.

The Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is called the Vajasaneyi Samhita. Out of sixteen, only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived, Madhyandina and Kanva both are nearly same except for minor differences.

There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – Taittirīya saṃhita, Maitrayani saṃhita, Kaṭha saṃhita and Kapiṣṭhala saṃhita which are very different from each other.

The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the Taittiriya saṃhita written by Tittiri, a pupil of Yaksha and mentioned by Panini and the oldest one is Maitrayani Samhita.

It is a collection of short magic spells used by a certain class of priests at the time of sacrifices.

d) Atharva Veda

It is the ―knowledge storehouse of atharvaṇas, ―the procedures for everyday life‖. It was a late addition to the Vedas in later Vedic age

The Atharva Veda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit and has 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras which have been divided into 20 books.

Two different recensions of the Veda Paippalada and the Saunakiya are preserved. Kenneth Zysk, says the text is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the ―earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity‖

It is also called as Brahmaveda. Atharva Veda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is Ātharvāṅgirasa Mundaka Upanishad and Mandukya Upanishad are embedded in the AtharvaVeda

It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk. It contains charms and spells in verses to ward off diseases and evils.

Aranyak

The Aranyakas constitute the third stage of development of the Vedic literature.

They are placed in between Brahmanas and Upanishads. Their significance in the Vedic literature is indicated in the Mahabharata by saying that Aranyakas are the essence of the Vedas. But till now their exact role in the Vedic literature is not clear.

Generally, the word ‗Aranyaka‗ is associated with the forest and Aranyakas are known as the

‗forest texts‗, which contain the meditations of hermits in forests and ascetics on God, man, and the world.

The four texts of Vedic literature namely the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads are not different and distinct parts of the Vedas, but they represent a sequence of development of the Vedic thought, and the scope of Aranyakas cannot be reduced by calling them mere ‗forest texts‟. The great grammarian Panini describes the term Aranyaka in the sense of man associated with forest Katyayana another grammarian described the term in the sense of a chapter or treatise relating to the forest . Aranyakas not only contain symbols but also other aspects, but the symbolism is considered as their main feature because it is mostly discussed in them.

They do not describe not only secret or mystic subjects but also daily rituals like sandhyopasanam, panchamahayajna, brahmopasanam, etc. for a common man or a householder. The study of these teachings of the Vedas which are known as Aranyakas not make any harm to the persons who studies them.

Role of Aranyakas in Vedic Literature:

The general view of the Vedic literature is that Aranyakas are regarded as revolutionary or the transitional phase from ritual to philosophy. Macdonell says that Aranyakas in tone and content form a transition to Upanishads.

According to Deussen Aranyakas consist of the symbolic speculations on rituals, which for the most parts were not practicable and as such they emancipated from the limitations of a formal cult. So they form a natural transition from rituals of Brahmanas to the speculations of Upanishads.

The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans. They also provide the details of the rishis who lived in jungles.

These Aranyakas do not lay emphasis on sacrifices but on meditation and are opposed to early rituals. Their stress is predominantly on moral values. Thus they form a bridge between the way of work (karma marga) which was the main point of the Brahmanas and the way of knowledge (gyana marga) which was advocated by the Upanishads.

Some Important facts about Aranyakas:

The Aitareya Aranyaka is attached to the Aitareya Brahmana of the RigVeda. The Sankhyayana is the concluding portion of the Kaushitaki Brahmana of the Rig-Veda.

In the black Yajurveda, the Taittriya Aranyaka is a continuation of the Taitttriya Brahamana. In the white Yajurveda, the 14th book of the Satapatha Brahmana is in the name of Brihadarnayaka.

For the Samaveda, the only Aranyakas are the first sections of the Chhandogya Upanishad, which belongs to Tandyamaha Brahmana, and the Jaimniya Upanishad. Brahmana, and comprises the well Known Kena (or Talavakra) Upanishad.

The Arayankas deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it. These were studied and taught by men Vanaprasthaha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living in the forests.

All these works were in Sanskrit. Initially, they were handed down orally and were put to writing much later.

v Puranas

The Puranas are important works of ancient Sanskritic literature in India. Some of them have been considered significant as sources of political history. As religious works, Puranas offer us great insights into all the aspects and phases of Hinduism, its theism, its idol worship, its mythology, its philosophies and superstitions, its festivals and ceremonies, and its ethics which are different from any other religious work.

.

Puranas are a total of 18. They have 18 subsidiary puranas and a large number of other associated books. Every Purana deals with five topics viz.,

Sarga which is concerned with the evolution of the universe. Pratisarga which is related to the involution of the universe. Manvantara deals with the recurrence of time

Vamsa contains the genealogical list of sages and kings.

Vamshaharita deals with the life stories of certain select characters.

The Puranas start with the rulers who trace their origin to the sun and the moon. They describe the various kings who ruled in the Madhyadesh. They fill in the gap from the Puru kings of Hastinapur and the Ikshvaku King of Kosala. They give us details about the Shishunaga Kings and Nanda Kings. According to some historians, there are similarities between the Buddhist Mahayana texts of the first century of the Christian Era and the Puranas. Particularly, there is a lot in common between the Puranas and Lalitavistara (a Mahayana Buddhist Sutra).

Puranas also contain a description of the tirthas, sacred places of pilgrimage, and their mahatya, or their religious importance. They mention the four ages of Hinduism viz., Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. Every succeeding age is considered to be worse than its preceding one in terms of the social institutions and the prevailing moral values in the society.

Of the 18 Puranas, Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana, Brahma Purana, and Bhavishya Purana are considered to be important for historical purposes.

The Vishnu Purana contains 23,000 verses. It is considered to be a reliable source regarding the history of Mauryan dynasty.

The Vayu Purana consists of 24,000 verses. It describes the rule of the Guptas under the reign of Chandragupta I.

The Matsya Purana comprises of 14,000 verses. It contains fairly reliable information regarding the Andhra region and the Shishunaga dynasty

Other Puranas include – Brahmanda Purana (contains around 12.000 verses. It is the source of Lalita Sahasranamam which is considered to be an important sloka and recited at many prayers), Brahmavavairata Purana (comprises of 18000 verses), Garuda Purana (contains over 19,000 verses), Harivamsa Purana (contains 16000 verses and is considered to be a work of itihasa), Linga Purana (contains 11000 verses), Markandeya Purana (the shortest of all Puranas with 9000 verses, contains Devi Mahatyam which is an important text for Shakti worshippers), Narada Purana (contains 25000 verses), Padma Purana (contains 51000 verses), Skanda Purana (the longest of all Puranas with over 81,100 verses), Agni Purana (contains 15,400 verses), Surya Purana, and Vamana Purana.

Srimad Bhagavata Purana is the most popular among all the Puranas. It comprises of 18000 verses and contains a description of Dashavatara, the celebrated ten avatars of Lord Vishnu. The tenth chapter of the purana deals with the deeds and exploits of Lord Krishna during his childhood. This is the longest chapter of the Purana and contains a theme which was later elaborated by many Bhakti saints.

Apart from being a source of political history, Puranas are also an important source of the ancient Indian geography. In them, we come across the names of many cities which existed during their times. The distance between the various cities mentioned can be approximately determined from the information contained in the Puranas. They also help us know the old names of the cities, rivers, and mountains which were part of a particular region mentioned in a Purana.

Together with the Dharmashastras and the Tantras, Puranas govern the conduct and regulate the religious observances of many Hindus even in present times. Directly or vicariously, they shape the conduct of many Hindus and help in the performance of duties considered to be essential for the material and spiritual welfare.

However, the Puranas are criticized for their poor usage of language, including the versification, resulting in bad grammar. They are known for boundless exaggeration of events and as a confused medley of contents. In the present times, there is a consensus among the historians regarding the Puranas. They should be understood neither with a prejudice nor as historical truths. A middle path should be followed and only those aspects of the Puranas which seem reasonable should be accepted.

v Buddhist Literature

Buddhist Literature available in India can be divided into two prominent categories,

Prakrit and Pali Literature Sanskrit Literature

Prakrit and Pali were the languages spoken by Indians in the post-Vedic period. Prakrit is a generic term for any language which is different from the standard one i.e. Sanskrit. Pali is archaic Prakrit and a combination of various dialects. Lord Buddha gave his sermons in Pali and hence the early Buddhist literature developed in Pali.

Tripitaka

The most important among the early Buddhist literature is the Tripitaka. Also known as the Threefold Basket, they include –

Vinaya Pitaka Sutta Pitaka

Abhidhamma Pitaka

These, in turn, contain several books in them. Apart from them, there are many works which also form a part of the canonical literature, like the Tripitaka

Vinaya Pitaka – contains the rules of the Order of Buddhist monks which must be observed for achieving purity of conduct. Hence, it is also called the Book of Discipline. It, in turn, has three books viz., Suttavibhanga, Khandhaka, and Parivara.

Suttavibhanga – also known as the Patimokkha Sutta contains the rules for fully ordained monks called bhikkhus (Maha Vibhanga) and fully ordained nuns called bhikkhunis (Bhikkhuni Vibhanga).

Khandhakas – contain regulations on the course of life in the monastic order and have two sections – the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The former deals with the awakening of the Buddha and his great disciples while the latter deals with the First and the Second Buddhist Councils, the establishment of a community of Buddhist nuns.

Parivara – believed to be composed by a Ceylonese monk, it‗s a manual of instruction about the contents of the Vinaya Pitaka.

Sutta Pitaka – lays down the principles of religion. It is divided into five groups called the Nikayas. These include Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka.

Digha Nikaya, or the Long Collection, comprises 34 long Suttas. Of these, the Mahaparinibbana Sutta is the most important as it provides information on the last few days of the Buddha.

Majjhima Nikaya is a collection of middle-sized reports on instructions and it contains 152 suttas.

Samyutta Nikaya is a collection of instructions divided into groups and contains 56 groups of the suttas.

Anguttara Nikaya is the gradual or ―by one limb more‖ collection where the first chapter deals with things which occur only once, the second chapter deals with things which occur twice and so on.

Khadduka Nikaya is a collection of little pieces i.e. it contains texts of a diverse character which are scattered literary works.

Abhidhamma Pitaka is the latest of the Tripitaka. It contains expositions on the scholastic philosophy which include discourses on various subjects, such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge and metaphysical problems.

Khuddaka Nikaya

Khuddaka Nikaya includes some prominent literary works such as

Khuddakapatha – a prayer book, it‗s foremost among the pieces included in the Khuddaka Nikaya

Dhammapada – contains 423 gnomic stanzas which are very popular among the people.

Udana – a collection of impassionate utterances of the Buddha. It contains the popular story of

―Blind Men and Elephant‖.

Itivuttaka – means ―thus has been said‖, comprises maxims spoken bythe Buddha to his disciples.

Suttanipata is a collection of archaic literary pieces.

Vimanavatthu describes the grandeur of celestial palaces where the gods live

Petavatthu describes the miserable existence of the departed souls who have to expiate for their sins.

The Thera and the Theai-gathas are the songs of monks and nuns which are very appealing due to their lyric quality.

Canonical Literature

Other prominent canonical literary works in Buddhism include,

Jatakas – give an account of the former existences of the Buddha. They contain 547 poems. These are mentioned in the Khuddaka Nikaya. They are very close to the folklore literature. In Sanskrit, they are known as the Jatakamala. In Khmer, they are known as cietak, and in Chinese, they are known as Sadok.

Niddesa or Mahaniddesa – a commentary on the two chapters of the Suttanipata.

Patisambhidamagga – deals with knowledge and can be considered a part of the Abhidhamma literature in view of its contents.

Buddhavamsa is a legend in verse. It contains a narration of the life and activities of the 24 Buddhas who preceded Gautama.

Apadanas are the holy legends. They contain a description of the activities of young monks and nuns who have attained the position of Arhats.

Cariyapitaka is a selection of 35 metrical Jatakas. It reveals that in each of his previous existences Bodhisattva acquired the ten paramitas (perfections).

Non – Canonical Literature

Apart from the canonical literature, there was a long series of non-canonical literature in Pali. Some of them include,

Milindapanha – which means ―questions of Milinda‖. It contains a dialogue between Milinda who was the Graeco-Bactrian King Menander and the monk Nagasena over some problems of Buddhism. It was originally written in Sanskrit.

The two famous Ceylonese chronicles – Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa. The former deals with the royal dynasties of Indian subcontinent including Sri Lanka, and is known as the world‗s longest unbroken historical accounts while the latter deals with the arrival of the Buddha‗s teachings and preachers in Sri Lanka.

Sanskrit Literature

Sanskrit literature became prominent in Buddhism with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. However, some of the Sanskritic works were produced by the Hinayana school as well.

Mahavastu – believed to be the most important work of the Hinayana school. It is a collection of stories and different parts of it were composed in different periods. However, by including the details of miracles and earlier lives of the Buddha, it also displays some Mahayanic thought.

Lalitavistara – believed to be one of the most sacred of Mahayanic texts. It deals with the biography of the Buddha.

Buddhacharita – written by Asvaghosa, it‗s an epic style Sanskrit work. It tells the life history of Gautama Buddha.

Mahavibhasa Sastra – written by Vasumitra, it‗s also linked to the Samkhya and Vaisheshikha philosophies of Hinduism, apart from Buddhism.

Udanavarga – It contains verses which are attributable to the Buddha and his disciples.

Besides the above literature, there also exists Vajrayana Buddhist literature which mainly forms a part of canonical Tibetan-Buddhism. They are known as the Buddhist Tantras. They are subdivided into

Kriya tantras – focus on ritual actions

Charya tantras – centred on the worship of Buddha Vairocana (celestial Buddha)

Yoga tantras – they too focus on Vairocana

Anuttara tantras – focus on mental transformation rather than on ritual actions.

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Chapter-5

INDIAN PAINTINGS

v Introduction

From very early periods it is evident from literary sources and also from the remnants that have been discovered that Painting as an art form has flourished in India. The literary treatise Mudrakshakam by Vishaka Datta mentioned the existence of Numerous paintings or Patas. Yama-pata is an isolated painting; Cauka-patas is an example of isolated framed drawings and the Dighala-patas or long scroll of paintings, represent a complete legend.

Chitrasutra section in the book Vishnudharmoara, describes the basic tenets of painting. According to this treatise, there are six limbs of painting ( Sadangas ). Sadangas are also mentioned in Vatsayana‗s Magnum Opus - Kamasutra

The Sadanga translated mean:

· Roopbheda – The knowledge of looks and appearances.

‗Roopa‗ means the outer form or appearance of the subject. The perception is visual as well as mental. ‗Bheda,‗ on the other hand, means difference. In other words, to create a painting, an artist needs to have a sound knowledge about the different forms that exist. He has to know how a form of life differs from a form of death. Both have their own characteristic features and sublimity.

„Roopabheda‟ enables an artist to perceive and depict things as they appear. Of course, this knowledge cannot depend solely on the power of sight. Experience is as much important as the former

· Pramananam – Accuracy and precision of measurement and structure.

This principle is governed by certain laws, which gives the capability of proving the correctness of perception and delineation in paintings. ‗Pramamanam‗ teaches the exact measure, proportion and distance of the subjects.

· Bhava – The feelings on forms.

‗Bhava‗ means an emotion, a feeling, an intention, or an idea. This aspect of art is depicted in the form of feelings expressed by the subject.

In fact, in an entirely lifeless depiction, it is only this aspect which can bring about a sense of life and passion. A bhava is like a breeze of air – it gives the painting the much-needed motion.

· Lavanya Yojanam – Blending grace in an artistic representation.

Painting should be gracefully high in its artistic quality. The pramananam is for stringent proportions, and bhava is for expressing movement. But, lavanya yojanam is for controlling the over-expression of both. The motive is to bring about a sense of beauty in a dignified and organised manner.

Abanindranath Tagore, described lavanya yojanam as a ‗loving mother,‗ who is also careful about the rules of raising up her child.

· Sadrisyam or Resemblance.

Sadrishyam is the most challenging task of creating a painting. Sadrisyam suggests the degree to which a depiction is similar to an artist‗s vision or the subject itself. In a way, it is also a way of depicting similitude.

· Varnakabhangam - An artistic way of making use of the brush and colours.

The term translated means the way a subject is being drawn and coloured. Varnika Bhangam implies there shall be the use of brush and pigments. This principle focuses on, the way the strokes are being applied to a canvas, and the knowledge of the artist about the different colours.

The Vinayapitaka (3-4 century BC) describes the existence of painted figures in many royal buildings.

Bhimbetka caves in Madhya Pradesh have Paintings and drawings of animals dating back to prehistoric times. Narsingarh ( M.P.) Mesolithic paintings display skins of spotted deer left drying which indicating the art of tanning skins for clothing and shelter.

Musical instruments like the harp have also been painted, indicating knowledge of Music and Instruments. Joanna (M.P.) paintings display a square divided by vertical lines into compartments, signifying that Mesolithic paintings contain geometric forms like the spiral, square, circle and rhomboid.

Paintings were seen on Indus Harappa seals of 2750 BC. While in the early historic rock paintings animals are depicted as half human and half animal, the paintings of the later period, men are depicted as riding on cattle and elephants. Group scenes, royal processions,

men riding horses predominate the rock canvas as observed Mahadeo Hills, M.P.

The Ajanta and Ellora caves Bagh caves are outstanding examples of Early era cave paintings. Golden Age of Indian Arts was during the Gupta era who were the great patrons of art between 4-6 centuries. The Pallavas in the south likewise left behind exceptional examples of paintings in temples. Both the art forms; painting and sculpture were promoted by The Chola. The earliest examples of Miniature painting in India was the Pala Miniatures Painted on palm leafs and wooden covers. The Palas ruled eastern India during 9-16th Centuries A.D.

v PRE-HISTORIC BHIMBETKA PAINTINGS

The pre-historic Bhimbetka paintings are finished on quarzite walls of the rock shelters using pigment colours - ochre or geru mixed with lime or water or other medium being the most common. The Chalcolithic and the historic periods followed the earliest paintings are of Mesolithic times. With the help of thin brushes perhaps made of twigs, indicate a myriad of animals and human figures, intricate designs, riders, royal procession, hunting and bale scenes in these Paintings. Paintings are normally in various shades of red and white apart from some in green and yellow colours. Wild animals and human figures are most common in Mesolithic paintings.

Animals are depicted as moving, running, grazing or being hunted singly or collectively or even just standing. Historic Period paintings resemble the earlier paintings and depict royal processions, bale scenes and men riding garrisoned horses. Almost all of these Paintings especially of animals, are particularly natural in their depiction, conveying dynamism and movement. Bhimbetka site has been continually inhabited even during late historical times as is evident from paintings and writings.

CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN PAINTINGS

The paintings of India can be broadly classified under Mural/Wall paintings and Miniature paintings. Murals are huge works executed on the walls of solid structures, as in the Ajanta Caves and the Sittanavasal cave temple. Miniature paintings are executed on a small scale ( <25 Sq Inch) on a variety of material such as paper and cloth. Although began during Pala rule, the art of miniature painting reached its glory during the Mughal period. The tradition of miniature paintings has been carried forward by the painters of different Rajasthani and Pahari schools of painting like the Bundi, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Marwar and Mewar, Kulu, Kangra, Jammu, Thang-ka.

Indian paintings provide an artistic range that extends from the early civilization to the present day. Indian paintings have been religious in purpose in the beginning and later they evolved to become a fusion of various cultures and traditions. The Indian painting see influences of Greco-Roman, Iranian-Persian as well as Chinese influences. Cave paintings in different parts of India bear testimony to these influences .

MURAL PAINTINGS

Indian Mural paintings are regarded as the earliest evidences of Indian paintings that use the cave walls and palaces as canvas while miniature paintings are small-sized colourful, intricate handmade illumination. Different types of Indian painting evolved in different periods of history. There are several styles that can be recognised. This starts from prehistoric cave painting of Bhimbetka and flourishes through cave paintings of Ajanta caves, Ellora caves and Bagh. Bhimbetka of Madhya Pradesh records a range of prehistoric paintings discovered in numerous caves. The paintings span a period of 600 years starting from upper Palaeolithic to early historic and medieval times. Cave Paintings of Ajanta and Ellora Depict the Buddhist monks who employed painters to draw the life and teachings of Lord Buddha , Jataka on the walls of the Ajanta caves. The figures along with their costumes and jewelleries in beautiful colours and style can be manifested in Ajanta while Ellora caves have the paintings that are of Buddhist Monks and Hindu deities.

Ajanta Paintings

The Ajanta Caves are carved out of volcanic rock in the Maharashtra Plateau very close to the ancient trade routes attracting traders & pilgrims through whom the Ajanta art style diffused as far as China & Japan. The Buddhist Monks and artists turned the stone walls into picture books of Buddha's life & teachings. These artists have portrayed the costumes, ornaments & styles of the court life of their times. The artists applied mud plaster in two coats - the first was rough to fill in the pores of the rocks & then a final coat of lime plaster over it.

Ajanta cave painting are created in tempera and fresco techniques. The surface served as the canvas was also given due importance in its preparation. The surface is plastered with clay, dung and hay and lime, after being chiselled to make the surface rough. This was normally done to achieve a smooth finish and a glossy effect was added with the use of seashells and conch dusts.

The outline was drawn in red ochre, then the colours are applied including the contours in brown, deep red or black. The pigments for the paints were from local volcanic rocks with the exception of lamp black, which is derived from the Black sooth. However, animal glue & vegetable gums are used equally.

The paintings later suffered from insects, blistering & flaking. Since the painting used deep colour washes, the contour of the figures stand out boldly.

Facial expressions were highlighted by the patches of light colours. The human & animal forms display a variety of graceful poses while numerous methods

were used to create the illusion of depth. The tempered poses, supple limbs, artistic features, a great variety of hair styles, all kinds of ornaments & jewellery indicate skilled artisans.

In a mural in Cave 10, Elephants are painted in different poses bringing out the skill of the artist in handling these bulky forms in all perspective views, with erected tails & raised trunks, depicting sensed danger. The styles of the later murals exposes a merger of two streams of art, Satavahana of Andhra & Gupta art of North India. The newly evolved classical style had a far reaching influence on all the paintings of the country for centuries to come. A high

degree of craftsmanship incorporating all the rules laid down by ancient Indian treatises on painting and aesthetics are evident. The fluid, yet firm lines, long sweeping brush strokes, outlining graceful contours, subtle gradation of the same colour, greed, love & compassion. highlighting nose, eyelids, lips and chin making the figures emerge from the flat wall surface, cannot go unnoticed. Animals, birds, trees, flowers, architecture are pictured with an eye to their beauty of form. Human emotions & character are depicted with great understanding & skill - indignation, Only thirteen of the caves of the 29 caves have fragments of paintings, the most important of which are in two chaityas, dating from the 1st century BCE, and in four of the viharas; these were done between the 5th and 7th centuries.

Bagh Painting