Butterflies

Butterflies recorded at Dun Coillich

Lycaenidae

(Coppers, Hairstreaks & Blues)

Aricia artaxerxes (Northern Brown Argus)

The Northern Brown Argus (Aricia artaxerxes) is a small, chocolate-brown butterfly restricted to northern England and Scotland. It is a high-priority conservation species, known for its specific habitat needs and a "silvery" appearance while in flight.

Key Characteristics

Appearance: Adults are dark brown with a row of orange crescents along the wing edges. Scottish specimens typically have a distinctive white spot in the center of the forewing, while those in northern England usually have a black or dark brown spot.
Life Cycle: Unlike its southern relative, the Brown Argus (which has two broods), the Northern Brown Argus is typically single-brooded, with adults on the wing from June to August.
Diet: The caterpillars are specialists, feeding almost exclusively on the Common Rock-rose (Helianthemum nummularium).

Habitat and Distribution

Location: Primarily found in the Scottish Borders, eastern Scotland, and limestone areas of northern England like the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales.
Preferred Terrain: It thrives in well-drained, flower-rich grasslands on sheltered, south-facing slopes, often over limestone or alkaline soil.
Status: Listed as Vulnerable on the UK Red List. It has faced significant declines due to habitat loss from overgrazing, afforestation, and scrub encroachment.

Conservation Efforts

Organisations like Butterfly Conservation and the Scottish Wildlife Trust actively monitor colonies. Recent successes include the butterfly's return to the Ochil Hills in 2023 after a 100-year absence. Volunteers can assist by joining survey workshops to record egg-laying sites on Rock-rose plants.

Are you looking for specific locations to spot this butterfly during the summer, or do you need advice on managing land to support its habitat?

Callophrys rubi (Green Hairstreak)

The Green Hairstreak (rubi) is a unique, small, and elusive butterfly distinguished by being the only species in Britain and Ireland with bright, iridescent green undersides. It is widespread but lives in small, localized colonies, primarily in scrubby habitats.

Ecology and Habitat

Habitat: It favors dry, scrubby areas, including chalk downland, heathland, moorland, bogs, railway cuttings, and rough, scrubby grassland.
Foodplants: This species is a generalist, using a wider range of larval foodplants than any other British butterfly, including Gorse, Broom, Bramble, Bilberry, and Common Rock-rose.
Behaviour : Adults are territorial, with males often found perching on bushes to chase away rivals and wait for females. They are often seen basking in the sun, always resting with their wings closed to camouflage against foliage.
Ant Association: The larvae and pupae have a, sometimes symbiotic, relationship with ants, which are attracted to secretions, and in some cases, protect the larvae.

Life Cycle

The Green Hairstreak is univoltine, meaning it has only one generation per year.

Adults (April - June): Adults emerge in spring, with northern populations appearing later. They feed on nectar from flowers such as Bugle, Bramble, and Dandelion.
Eggs (May - June): Females lay eggs singly on the flower buds or young leaves of the foodplant. The eggs are initially pale green, turning darker after a few days.
Larva (June - July): Larvae hatch after 1–2 weeks and feed on the buds, flowers, and leaves. They are woodlouse-shaped, green with yellow, white, or black markings. They are known to be cannibalistic after their first moult.
Pupa (July - Next Spring): Fully grown larvae wander to the ground to pupate in leaf litter or sometimes inside ants' nests.
Overwintering: The species overwinters as a pupa (chrysalis), which is a key differentiator from other British hairstreaks that hibernate as eggs. The pupa is capable of producing a "squeaking" sound, which is believed to attract ants.
Conservation

While widespread, the Green Hairstreak has shown a long-term decline (38% reduction from 1976–2019) due to habitat loss, particularly the loss of upland heath.

Lycaena phlaeas (Small Copper)

The Small Copper (Lycaena phlaeas) is a widespread, small, and fast-flying butterfly known for its vibrant, fiery-orange forewings with dark spots and thick, dark brown margins. It is a sun-loving species found throughout Europe, Asia, and North America in habitats like dry grasslands, heathlands, woodland rides, and waste ground.

Ecology and Behaviour

Territoriality: Males are famously aggressive and highly territorial, often choosing a specific perch on bare ground or rocks to bask and chase off other butterflies or insects.
Nectaring: They are avid nectar feeders, often visiting flowers such as Common Ragwort, Thistles, Yarrow, Dandelion, and Heather.
Roosting: Both sexes often roost head-down on grass stems or dead vegetation.
Distribution: While common, they often exist in small, discrete colonies, though they are quite mobile.

Life Cycle

The Small Copper is a multivoltine species, typically having 2 to 3 generations per year (with a potential 4th in hot years), with adults flying from April through October.

Egg (approx. 1–2 weeks): Eggs are laid singly on the upper side of the leaves of the larval foodplant, usually Common Sorrel (Rumex acetosa) or Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex acetosella). The eggs are small, white, and look like miniature golf balls.
Larva/Caterpillar (approx. 2 months): The larvae are slug-like, usually green with pink/purple stripes. They are nocturnal and feed on the underside of leaves, creating characteristic "windows" or grooves in the leaf, leaving the top cuticle intact.
Pupa/Chrysalis (approx. 3–4 weeks): The larva pupates near the ground, often in plant litter or attached to stems, held by a silk girdle. There is evidence that, like many Lycaenids, the pupa may be tended by ants, which are attracted to its secretions.
Overwintering: The species overwinters as a 2nd or 3rd instar larva, attached to the base of the foodplant.

Key Foodplants and Habitat

Larval Foodplants: Primarily Common Sorrel and Sheep's Sorrel.
Habitat Preferences: Dry, sunny areas with sparse vegetation, such as railway embankments, sand dunes, coastal cliffs, and brownfield sites.
Conservation Status: The Small Copper is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species globally, although it remains relatively common in the UK, with populations fluctuating based on summer warmth and habitat availability.

Polyommatus icarus (Common Blue)

Ecology and Behaviour

Territoriality: Males are famously aggressive and highly territorial, often choosing a specific perch on bare ground or rocks to bask and chase off other butterflies or insects.
Nectaring: They are avid nectar feeders, often visiting flowers such as Common Ragwort, Thistles, Yarrow, Dandelion, and Heather.
Roosting: Both sexes often roost head-down on grass stems or dead vegetation.
Distribution: While common, they often exist in small, discrete colonies, though they are quite mobile.

Life Cycle

The Small Copper is a multivoltine species, typically having 2 to 3 generations per year (with a potential 4th in hot years), with adults flying from April through October.

Egg (approx. 1–2 weeks): Eggs are laid singly on the upper side of the leaves of the larval foodplant, usually Common Sorrel (Rumex acetosa) or Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex acetosella). The eggs are small, white, and look like miniature golf balls.
Larva/Caterpillar (approx. 2 months): The larvae are slug-like, usually green with pink/purple stripes. They are nocturnal and feed on the underside of leaves, creating characteristic "windows" or grooves in the leaf, leaving the top cuticle intact.
Pupa/Chrysalis (approx. 3–4 weeks): The larva pupates near the ground, often in plant litter or attached to stems, held by a silk girdle. There is evidence that, like many Lycaenids, the pupa may be tended by ants, which are attracted to its secretions.
Overwintering: The species overwinters as a 2nd or 3rd instar larva, attached to the base of the foodplant.

Key Foodplants and Habitat

Larval Foodplants: Primarily Common Sorrel and Sheep's Sorrel.
Habitat Preferences: Dry, sunny areas with sparse vegetation, such as railway embankments, sand dunes, coastal cliffs, and brownfield sites.
Conservation Status: The Small Copper is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species globally, although it remains relatively common in the UK, with populations fluctuating based on summer warmth and habitat availability.

Nymphalidae

(Fritillaries, Browns & Tortoiseshells)

Aglais io (Peacock)

The Peacock butterfly (Aglais io) is one of Europe's most recognizable and widely distributed species, known for its striking, large eye-spots designed to deter predators. It is characterized by a long adult lifespan, sometimes reaching up to 11 months, due to its ability to hibernate.

Ecology and Behavior

Habitat: Common in gardens, woodlands, meadows, parks, and hedgerows across temperate regions of Europe and Asia.
Diet: Adults feed on nectar from flowers like buddleia, thistles, and dandelions. In autumn, they may feed on overripe fruit or tree sap to build up fat reserves for winter.
Defense Mechanism: When threatened, the butterfly opens its wings, revealing four large eye-spots that mimic a predator like an owl or cat. They can also produce an audible hissing sound by rubbing their wings together to startle predators.
Hibernation: Adults overwinter in dark, sheltered places such as caves, tree hollows, sheds, and houses.
Territoriality: Males are highly territorial during summer, often perching in sunny spots to defend a patch of habitat.
Life Cycle

The Peacock butterfly undergoes complete metamorphosis, consisting of four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.

Eggs: In spring (March–May), overwintered females lay eggs in large clusters of up to 400–500 on the underside of Common Nettle (Urtica dioica) leaves.
Larva (Caterpillar): The caterpillars hatch after one to two weeks. They are velvety black with white spots and spines. They live socially, spinning communal webs on nettles for protection while feeding.
Pupa (Chrysalis): After about a month, fully grown larvae disperse to pupate. The chrysalis hangs from a stem or leaf and can be light green, dark grey, or brownish-white, allowing it to camouflage.
Adult: Adult butterflies emerge in late summer (typically from July).

Life Cycle Variation (Voltinism)

Historically: The species was generally univoltine, meaning one generation per year, with adults emerging in summer, feeding, and then hibernating until the following spring.
Modern Shift: Due to climate change, populations in Western Europe have shifted towards being bivoltine (two generations per year).
Recent Trends: A new, partial second generation has become common, with adults emerging in late summer (September-October) in addition to the traditional early summer generation. These second-generation adults are the primary ones that survive the winter.

Aglais urticae (Small Tortoiseshell)

The Small Tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae) is one of the most familiar and widespread, yet declining, butterfly species in the British Isles and Europe. Known for its vibrant orange, black, and blue-spotted wings, this butterfly is a common visitor to gardens and wild spaces, largely reliant on stinging nettles for its life cycle.

Ecology and Habitat

Distribution: Widespread across the British Isles and Europe, often found in gardens, woodlands, grasslands, and even mountain peaks (up to 1200m in Scotland).
Habitat: Thrives wherever stinging nettles (Urtica dioica) are abundant, particularly in sunny, sheltered areas like field margins and gardens.
Diet: Adults nectar on a variety of flowers, including Buddleia, thistles, dandelions, daisies, and heather.
Behaviour: Known for being highly mobile and for having strong territorial instincts, with males often perching in the afternoon to defend patches of nettles.
Overwintering: Unlike migratory species, small tortoiseshells hibernate as adults, often in groups within sheds, garages, or houses.
Population Decline: Although still common, they have suffered a massive reduction in numbers since the mid-1990s, likely due to a combination of climate change (causing drought-related food shortages) and increased parasitism from the fly Sturmia bella.

Life Cycle

The small tortoiseshell typically has two broods (bivoltine) in southern areas (flying April–May and July–August), but only one brood in colder northern regions.

1. Eggs: Following hibernation, females emerge in early spring (March–May) and lay large clusters of up to 100 green, ribbed eggs on the underside of young nettle leaves in direct sunlight.
2. Larvae (Caterpillars): After 10–14 days, larvae hatch and live gregariously, spinning a communal silk web over the nettles for protection. They are black with yellow stripes and spines. As they grow, they move to new plants, spinning new webs, and can be found feeding during the day and night.
3. Pupae (Chrysalis): After about 3–4 weeks, the caterpillars become solitary and pupate, usually attaching themselves to a stem, fence, or wall. The chrysalis is well-camouflaged, ranging from grey to golden-metallic in appearance.
4. Adult: The butterfly emerges after 10–14 days. Adults have an average lifespan of roughly 8 months, with a second generation emerging in late summer to feed heavily on nectar to prepare for winter hibernation.

Aphantopus hyperantus (Ringlet)

The Ringlet (Aphantopus hyperantus) is a common, medium-sized, sooty-brown butterfly found in the UK and Europe, known for its distinctive "bobbing" flight and ability to fly on dull, overcast, or damp days. It is primarily a species of damp, sheltered, and tall grasslands, often found in woodland rides, hedgerows, and meadows.

Ecology and Habitat

Preferred Habitat: Damp, sheltered grasslands, woodland rides, margins, and untrimmed hedgerows.
Behavior: Known for a slow, "bobbing" flight pattern, often seen in shaded or damp areas.
Diet: Adults feed on nectar from plants like bramble, wild privet, thistle, and common fleabane.
Distribution: Common throughout much of the UK, with populations often having a "closed" structure (remaining in a specific, well-defined area).
Threats: Highly susceptible to drought conditions, which can cause population crashes by drying out larval food sources.

Life Cycle

The Ringlet is univoltine, meaning it produces one generation per year.

Egg (Summer): Females lay eggs in a unique way, often by sitting on a grass stem and "dropping" or ejecting eggs directly into the air, allowing them to fall into the surrounding vegetation. They are not attached to a specific spot. Eggs hatch in 2–3 weeks.
Larva (Caterpillar) (Late Summer–Spring): The caterpillars are nocturnal, feeding on a variety of grasses at night (e.g., Cock’s-foot, False Brome, and Tufted Hair-grass). They hide at the base of grass tussocks during the day. They hibernate over winter, usually in the 3rd instar, and continue feeding on mild winter evenings.
Pupa (June): The caterpillar pupates in a flimsy cocoon at the base of a grass tussock in June.
Adult (Late June–August): Adults emerge in late June, with a peak in mid-July. The flight period is relatively short, often lasting only a few weeks at any given site.

Identification

Wings: The wings are velvety, sooty to chocolate brown, with a white fringe on the edges.
Eyespots: The underside of the wings features distinct, often yellow-ringed, eyespots (three on the forewing, five on the hindwing).
Variations: Some forms lack the, "rings" around the spots, appearing as simple white dots, a variation known as arete.

Boloria euphrosyne (Pearl-bordered Fritillary)

The Pearl-bordered Fritillary (Boloria euphrosyne) is one of the earliest fritillaries to emerge in spring, with a life cycle and ecology heavily dependent on warm, open habitats and specific foodplants. Once common, it has declined rapidly in the UK and is now a high-priority conservation species.

Ecology and Habitat Requirements

Habitat: It thrives in sunny, sheltered, south-facing areas with sparse vegetation, such as recently coppiced woodland, clear-felled areas, and bracken/grassland mosaics.
Foodplants: The caterpillars feed exclusively on violets, primarily Common Dog-violet (Viola riviniana) and sometimes Early Dog-violet (V. reichenbachiana) or Marsh Violet (V. palustris).
Microclimate: The species requires warm, dry microclimates for the larvae to develop rapidly, often utilizing dead bracken or leaf litter for basking.
Key Factors: It is an indicator of well-maintained open woodlands and thrives where bracken is managed, allowing for a mix of open ground and vegetation.

Life Cycle

The Pearl-bordered Fritillary has an annual (univoltine) life cycle.

Adults (Late April – June): The adults emerge early, sometimes by late April in the south, and are known to fly low to the ground in sunny weather. They are found for about six weeks and feed on spring flowers like Bugle (Ajuga reptans) and bluebells.
Eggs (May – June): Females lay eggs singly, usually on dead bracken or leaf litter near, or occasionally on, the foodplant.
Larvae (Summer – March): The caterpillars hatch after about two weeks and feed on violets. They grow quickly, moulting three times, and then enter hibernation around the end of July, typically in a shrivelled leaf at the base of the plant.
Hibernation and Spring (March – April): In March, the caterpillars emerge from hibernation and spend time basking on dead litter to raise their body temperature. They feed further before pupating.
Pupae (April – May): Pupation takes place in the leaf litter, lasting 2-3 weeks before the adult emerges.
Conservation Status and Behaviour

Declines: The species has undergone a severe decline, especially in England and Wales, due to the loss of traditional woodland management like coppicing.
Mobility: Individuals are generally sedentary, rarely moving more than 1km in their lifetime, making them vulnerable to habitat fragmentation.
Management: Conservation efforts focus on maintaining open, sunny areas through controlled grazing, clearing scrub, and rotational coppicing to ensure an abundance of violets.

Note: The Pearl-bordered Fritillary is similar to the Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary (Boloria selene) but is distinguished by having two large silvery "pearls" in the center of the underwing, rather than just on the outer edge.

Boloria selene (Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary)

The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary (Boloria selene) is a declining butterfly found in damp grassland, woodland clearings, and moorland edges. It has an annual lifecycle (single brood) with adults flying from May to July, feeding on nectar-rich plants like Marsh Thistles. The larvae feed primarily on Common Dog-violet and Marsh Violet, overwintering as caterpillars in dead leaves or bracken.

Ecology and Habitat

Preferred Habitat: Damp, open habitats, including grassy flushes, damp woodland rides, clearings, bogs, and coastal cliffs.
Key Foodplant: The larvae feed on violets, specifically the Marsh Violet (Viola palustris) in wet areas and Common Dog-violet (Viola riviniana) in drier, sunny, south-facing locations.
Habitat Requirements: Favours areas with a mosaic of vegetation, including short grasses for basking, taller nectar sources (e.g., brambles, thistles), and patches of bare ground for warmth.
Threats: Loss of habitat due to scrub invasion, inappropriate woodland management (e.g., lack of coppicing), and fragmentation of sites.

Life Cycle

Eggs: Laid singly on dead vegetation, leaf litter, or sometimes on the foodplant itself.
Larvae (Caterpillar): Hatch in about two weeks, feeding on violets before entering hibernation in late August. They emerge in early spring, often basking on dead litter for warmth. They are blackish with yellow-white spines.
Pupation: Occurs in late May to early June within detritus or low vegetation.
Adults: Fly from May to July (sometimes early August). They are active, patrolling, and often found feeding on nectar in sunny, sheltered spots.
Generation: Univoltine (one generation per year), with a 10-month lifecycle spanning across autumn and winter.

The species is frequently found in Scotland and Wales but has significantly declined in England.

Coenonympha pamphilus (Small Heath)

The Small Heath (Coenonympha pamphilus) is a small, widespread butterfly belonging to the Nymphalidae family (subfamily Satyrinae, or "browns"), frequently found in dry, open grasslands, heathland, and coastal dunes. It is characterized by a "jerky" or fluttering flight close to the ground, usually settling with its wings closed to show a cryptic underside with a characteristic, often single, eyespot on the forewing.

Ecology and Habitat

Habitat Preferences: Prefers dry, well-drained grassland, including chalk downland, heaths, coastal dunes, railway embankments, and sometimes large gardens.
Behaviour: The species is highly territorial, with males often gathering in "leks" to compete for females. They are strictly diurnal, flying only in sunny conditions, and are known for being lateral baskers (angling their bodies 90° to the sun with wings closed).
Diet: Caterpillars feed on various fine-leaved grasses, particularly Sheep’s-fescue (Festuca ovina), meadow-grasses (Poa spp.), and bents (Agrostis spp.). Adults nectar on small flowers like thyme, eyebright, and bird's-foot trefoil.
Conservation Status: While widespread across Europe, the Small Heath has experienced a significant decline in many areas, particularly in the UK, where it is classified as "Vulnerable".

Life Cycle

The Small Heath is typically polyvoltine, meaning it produces multiple generations (broods) per year, with variations depending on latitude and temperature.

Broods: In the south of Britain, it usually produces two to three broods, with adults appearing from April to September or October. In northern areas (e.g., Scotland), it is often single-brooded, flying from June to August.
Eggs: Eggs are pale green, turning white with brownish streaks, and are laid singly on the blades of host grasses. They hatch in about 14 days.
Larvae (Caterpillars): The larvae are light green with a darker green stripe along the back, and have tiny "tails" (anal points). They feed on the tips of grasses and often feed at night.
Hibernation (Diapause): The species overwinters as a partially grown larva, often in the third or fourth instar, in grassy tussocks, resuming growth in spring.
Pupae: The pupa stage lasts about 3 weeks, with the chrysalis (light green to yellow-brown) hanging vertically from a stem, attached by the cremaster.

Erebia aethiops (Scotch Argus)

The Scotch Argus (Erebia aethiops) is a distinctive, dark-brown butterfly predominantly found in Scotland, known for being one of the last species to emerge in the summer and its adaptation to cool, damp climates. It is a univoltine species (one generation per year) that completes its life cycle in 12 months, with a unique reliance on tall, unshaded grassland and a, sometimes, two-year development cycle in poor weather conditions.

Ecology and Habitat

Distribution: Common in the Scottish Highlands, Inner Hebrides, and West Scotland, with two isolated colonies remaining in Cumbria, England.
Habitat: Primarily found in damp grasslands, woodland clearings, sheltered bogs, and coastal undercliffs up to 500m elevation.
Key Requirements: Tall, rank grasses that are lightly grazed or ungrazed, providing essential shelter from winds and a stable microclimate.
Behavior: Highly sensitive to weather; in bright sunshine, males patrol low over grass in search of mates. In cooler, cloudy, or wet conditions, they remain almost motionless, clinging to grass stems or bramble.
Flight Period: Late July to late August, peaking in early-to-mid August.
Nectar Sources: Frequently visits flowers such as Bramble, Heather, Thistle, Knapweed, and Devil's-bit Scabious.

Life Cycle

The Scotch Argus undergoes a complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult) with a slow larval development.

Egg (July – August): Females lay eggs singly, usually on the dry, dead stems of grass, choosing sheltered spots in full sun. The eggs are initially pale, later turning grey with dark spots, and hatch after 2–3 weeks.
Larva/Caterpillar (August – June):
1. Feeding: The larvae are active in the autumn, feeding on grasses—primarily Purple Moor-grass(Molinia caerulea) in Scotland and Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria caerulea) in England.
2. Hibernation: The larvae hibernate in the second or third instar (stage) from October, tucked at the base of grass tussocks to survive the winter.
3. Spring Feeding: They emerge in April to continue feeding at night, reaching full maturity by June.
Pupa/Chrysalis (June – July): The fully grown larva forms a loose cocoon at the base of grass stems, in moss, or just below the ground.
Adult (July – August): The adult emerges, with males often appearing before females. They are highly active in sunshine, but generally, the species has poor dispersal powers, meaning they stay close to their breeding grounds.

Conservation Status and Management

Status: While widespread in Scotland, it is listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of British Butterflies (2021) due to long-term declines in its southern range.
Management: Maintenance of habitat requires avoiding excessive grazing or mowing, as the butterflies need thick grass tussocks for winter protection. Scrub management is also necessary to keep areas sunny and sheltered.

Polygonia c-album (Comma)

The Comma butterfly (Polygonia c-album) is a distinctive species known for its ragged, orange-and-brown wings, featuring a small white comma-shaped mark on the underside of its hindwings. It has a highly flexible, two-generation life cycle that allows it to adapt to variable weather conditions and is a notable conservation success story in Britain, having made a significant comeback to widen its range.

Ecology

Habitat: Commas prefer open woodlands, woodland edges, hedgerows, and are increasingly found in gardens, parks, and fruit-growing areas.
Diet: Caterpillars feed on stinging nettles (primary food plant), elms, willow, hops, and currants. Adults feed on nectar from flowers like Buddleia and Thistle, but crucially, they rely on rotting fruit and tree sap in autumn to build up fat reserves for hibernation.
Behaviour & Camouflage: Adults are fast fliers and often hold territories on sunny woodland edges. They exhibit "cryptic" coloration; with wings closed, they resemble a dead leaf, aiding in protection from predators and camouflage during hibernation.
Range: Widespread across England and Wales, expanding into southern Scotland.

Life Cycle

The Comma has a complex, flexible life cycle often producing two broods per year.

Hibernation & Emergence (March-April): Adults overwinter in sheltered spots, such as tree crevices or among dead leaves. They emerge on warm, sunny days to feed (e.g., on Sallow) and mate.
Eggs (Spring): Females lay eggs singly on the upper side of foodplant leaves, usually nettles. The eggs are green, turning yellow and eventually grey before hatching in 2-3 weeks.
Larvae (Caterpillar): The caterpillars are dark brown and white, mimicking bird droppings to avoid predators. They feed for about 5 weeks, growing to roughly 3.5cm.
Pupation: The larva forms a chrysalis (pupa) that is gray/brown and jagged, resembling a dead leaf, and stays attached to the foodplant or nearby vegetation.
Generations (Summer):
1. First Generation (June/July): Emerging adults in early summer can be of two types:
  - Form hutchinsoni: Paler/lighter in color, these mate immediately to produce a second generation.
  - Darker Form: These do not mate immediately but instead go directly into a summer, pre-hibernation state.
2. Second Generation (Aug-Sept): These emerge later and are the dark form that will hibernate for the winter.

Key Facts

Unique Feature: The hutchinsoni form's development is triggered by the decreasing day length for the larvae; if the day length is still increasing, they develop into the lighter, immediate-breeding form.
Overwintering: They can survive winter in a dormant,, but not total, hibernation, often waking up on warm winter days in January/February.
Similar Species: The Eastern Comma (Polygonia comma) is a North American relative with similar habits.

Speyeria aglaja (Dark Green Fritillary)

The Dark Green Fritillary (Argynnis aglaja or Speyeria aglaja) is a widespread, fast-flying butterfly found across Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Despite its name, it is a large, orange butterfly with distinctive green-washed undersides featuring white "pearl" spots. It is a single-brooded species with a unique life cycle involving immediate larval hibernation.

Ecology and Habitat

Habitats: Prefers open, sunny, and often windswept environments, including chalk/limestone grassland, coastal sand dunes, moorland, and sometimes woodland rides.
Distribution: Widespread in Britain, particularly in the west and north, though it has declined in parts of eastern England.
Behavior: Known for a rapid, powerful flight. Males patrol relentlessly, while females are more sedentary, searching for egg-laying sites.
Larval Foodplants: The caterpillars feed on various violet species, primarily Common Dog-violet (Viola riviniana) in woodlands, Hairy Violet (V. hirta) on chalk, and Marsh Violet (V. palustris) in wet, northern, and western habitats.
Adult Nectar Sources: Feeds on thistles, knapweeds, brambles, and wild privet.

Life Cycle

The Dark Green Fritillary is univoltine (one generation per year).

Egg (July–August): Eggs are laid singly in late summer, often on dead leaves, twigs, or other vegetation near (but not always on) the foodplant.
Larva/Caterpillar (August–May): Eggs hatch after 2–3 weeks. The larvae do not feed immediately; instead, they eat their eggshell and enter hibernation straight away, spending about 8–10 months as tiny caterpillars in leaf litter or grass tussocks.
Larval Development (Spring): Larvae awaken in March and begin feeding on violet leaves during sunny days. When fully grown (around May), they are black with orange-brown spots and yellow stripes.
Pupa (May–June): The caterpillar constructs a "tent" or chamber from leaves held together with silk, often in dense vegetation. The chrysalis is dark, with black and brown markings.
Adult (June–August/September): Adults emerge 3–4 weeks later. They peak in mid-July, though they may appear later in colder, northern locations.

Conservation

While widespread, the species is considered Near Threatened in Great Britain and has experienced declines due to habitat loss, such as scrub encroachment on grassland. Ideal management includes light grazing or scrub control to maintain areas of warm, short turf mixed with taller vegetation for egg-laying.

Vanessa atalanta (Red Admiral)

The Red Admiral (Vanessa atalanta) is a strong-flying, migratory butterfly common in gardens, woodlands, and urban areas across the Northern Hemisphere. Migrants arrive from North Africa and southern Europe, with breeding starting in spring. Larvae feed primarily on stinging nettles inside folded-leaf tents, with adults emerging from July, feeding on nectar and rotting fruit until late autumn.

Ecology and Behaviour

Migration and Range: These butterflies are highly migratory, with populations arriving in the UK and Scandinavia from the south throughout spring. They are found across Europe, Asia, North America, and New Zealand.
Habitat: Commonly found in gardens, parks, woodland rides, and any area with nettles.
Diet: Adults feed on nectar from flowers like Buddleia and Ivy, but are particularly attracted to rotting fruit.
Behavior: Males are highly territorial, often chasing other butterflies and insects. They frequently roost in trees with wings closed, blending in with the bark.
Overwintering: While most migrate south, milder winters have allowed increasing numbers of adults to hibernate in the UK.

Life Cycle

Eggs: Single green eggs are laid on the upper leaves of host plants, mainly common nettle (Urtica dioica).
Larvae (Caterpillar): The larvae (black, greenish-brown, or pale green) live alone in a "tent" formed by folding a nettle leaf, which they secure with silk. They feed for 3–4 weeks.
Pupae (Chrysalis): Pupation occurs inside a folded leaf tent. The chrysalis is grey to brown, often with gold spots, and lasts 2–4 weeks.
Adults: Emerging from July, they can live for several weeks, with multiple overlapping generations.

Population Trends

Due to climate change and milder winters, the Red Admiral is increasingly able to survive the winter in more northerly latitudes, resulting in higher population numbers in recent years.

Vanessa cardui (Painted Lady)

The Painted Lady (

Vanessa cardui) is a globally widespread, migratory butterfly known for its rapid life cycle, vibrant orange-and-black coloration, and remarkable 9,000-mile round-trip migration. Often called the "thistle butterfly" or "cosmopolitan," this species can be found on every continent except Antarctica and Australia, adapting to diverse environments including fields, gardens, and deserts.

Life Cycle and Development

The Painted Lady undergoes complete metamorphosis, transforming from egg to adult in a short span of roughly 3–5 weeks.

Egg (3–5 days): Females lay up to 500 pale green, barrel-shaped eggs singly on the upper surface of host plant leaves.
Larva/Caterpillar (7–14 days): Emerging caterpillars (spiny, black with yellow stripes) are voracious eaters, often increasing their body mass 1,000 times. They construct protective, silk-webbed "tents" on host plants like thistles, mallows, and nettles. They go through 5 molts (instars).
Pupa/Chrysalis (7–10 days): The caterpillar attaches to a stem or leaf in a 'J' shape, molts into a mottled gray/brown chrysalis to mimic a dead leaf, and undergoes metamorphosis.
Adult (2–4 weeks): The butterfly emerges with a wingspan of 5–7.3 cm, immediately feeding on nectar from various flowers.

Ecology and Behavior

Host Plants: Larvae feed on over 100 plant species, favoring thistle, hollyhock, mallow, and stinging nettle.
Diet: Adult Painted Ladies are generalist nectar feeders, commonly visiting thistles, asters, and butterfly bush (Buddleia).
Migration: These butterflies undertake a multi-generational, 9,000-mile migration from Africa to the Arctic Circle. They move in waves of up to six generations, traveling at speeds up to 30 mph and covering 100 miles per day.
Seasonal Movement: They cannot survive cold winters in temperate regions, so they move north in spring and south in autumn, breeding along the way.
Irruption Years: Every ~10 years, massive populations ("Painted Lady summer") may appear due to favorable conditions in their breeding grounds.

Key Distinctions

Compared to Monarchs: Unlike monarch butterflies, Painted Ladies do not have a dedicated, single-generation return migration and instead breed along their migration route.
Appearance: They are often confused with the American Lady, but the Painted Lady lacks the distinct large eyespots on the upper side of the hindwing.

Painted Ladies are extremely hardy, often found in "disturbed" or "wild" areas such as meadows, road sides, and gardens.

Pieridae

(Whites & Orange-tips)

Anthocharis cardamines (Orange-tip)

The Orange-tip (cardamines) is a distinctive spring-flying butterfly found throughout Europe and Asia, known for the male's vivid orange wing tips. It is a single-brooded species that plays a key role in spring ecological monitoring, often emerging as early as March or April.

Life Cycle

The Orange-tip undergoes complete metamorphosis, which takes about a year, with the pupal stage lasting around 10 months.

Egg (May–June): Females lay eggs individually (singly) on the flower stalks of food plants, often using pheromones to signal that a plant is occupied. Eggs are initially greenish-white, turning bright orange after a few days.
Larva/Caterpillar (May–July): Hatching in 3–10 days, the caterpillar feeds on the seed pods and flowers of the host plant. The larvae are cannibalistic; if multiple eggs are laid on one plant, the first to hatch will eat the others. They pass through five instars (stages) over 3–4 weeks, changing from yellow to a blue-green color that perfectly camouflages with the seed pods.
Pupa/Chrysalis (July–April): The caterpillar pupates around mid-June, often leaving the food plant to find a suitable, often vertical, surface. The pupa is "boomerang-shaped," usually pale green or light brown, and overwinters in this stage.
Adult (April–June): Adults live for 9 to 18 days, emerging in spring to feed on nectar and mate.

Ecology and Behaviour

Habitat: Thrives in damp, sheltered areas such as meadows, riverbanks, hedgerows, and woodland edges, but is also common in gardens.
Food Plants: Larvae rely on cruciferous plants, primarily Cuckooflower (Cardamine pratensis) and Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata).
Sexual Dimorphism & Defense: Males are unmistakable with white wings tipped in orange, used to warn predators (like birds) that they are unpalatable, having consumed mustard oils as larvae. Females lack the orange tips, appearing mostly white with black wingtips, making them easier to mistake for other white butterflies.
Behaviour: Males are active patrollers looking for mates, while females are less active, often staying close to the host plants.
Conservation Status: The species is widespread and currently expanding its range northward, likely due to climate change, although it has suffered from the loss of traditional meadows.

Pieris brassicae (Large White)

The Large White butterfly (Pieris brassicae), also known as the Cabbage White, is a common Eurasian butterfly known for its two to three yearly generations and its larvae's tendency to cause significant damage to cabbage-family plants. It is a highly migratory species that feeds on cruciferous plants, using toxins from its food to protect itself from predators.

Life Cycle

The Large White butterfly undergoes a complete metamorphosis with four distinct stages, typically producing two to three generations between April and October.

Egg Stage (approx. 1 week): Females lay batches of 20–100 pale yellow, ribbed eggs on the undersides of host plant leaves. Eggs turn black just before hatching.
Larvae/Caterpillar Stage (2–3 weeks): Upon hatching, larvae live together in groups, feeding voraciously. They go through five instars (stages of growth), changing from light yellow to a yellow-green color with black spots and hairs. They are highly destructive to crops, often leaving only leaf veins behind.
Pupa/Chrysalis Stage (1–2 weeks in summer):Larvae pupate on nearby structures, such as fences, walls, or tree trunks. The pupa is pale green or grey with black spots.
Adult Stage: Adults (imagines) have a wingspan of 5–6.5 cm, with white wings and black tips. Females have two black spots on each forewing, while males do not. The underside of the wings is a pale, camouflaging greenish-yellow.
Overwintering: Pupae from the late-season generation (August–October) overwinter (enter a dormant state) until the following spring.

Ecology and Behaviour

Habitat and Distribution: The species is found across Eurasia, often in gardens, allotments, and farmland.
Diet: Larvae (caterpillars) feed on brassicas (cabbage family), including broccoli, kale, and Brussels sprouts, as well as nasturtium. Adults feed on nectar from various flowers, such as Buddleia and thistles.
Aposematism (Warning Colors): The caterpillars are brightly colored to warn predators, such as birds, that they are poisonous. They accumulate mustard oil glycosides from their host plants, which makes them taste unpleasant.
Migration: Large Whites are known for their migratory behavior, with populations in northern areas often replenished by migrants from southern regions during the summer. They can fly over 800 kilometers.
Reproduction: While some females may mate with more than one male (polyandry), most are monogamous. Females use their forelegs to "drum" on plants, testing their suitability for egg-laying.

Interaction with Environment

Pest Status: Due to their gregarious feeding habits, the larvae can cause significant agricultural and horticultural damage.
Predators: Although they are toxic, they are still preyed upon by various insects, birds, and spiders, particularly in their egg and larval stages.
Role in Ecosystem: They serve as pollinators as adults, and their larvae act as a food source for various predators.

Pieris napi (Green-veined White)

The Green-veined White (Pieris napi) is a common, widespread butterfly in the UK, Europe, and parts of Asia and Africa, distinguished by the thick, grey-green scaling along the veins on the underside of its hindwings. It prefers damp, sheltered habitats, such as woodland rides, riverbanks, and marshy areas, where it feeds on a variety of wild crucifers rather than cultivated cabbages.

Ecology

Habitat Preferences: The species favors humid, lush vegetation and is commonly found in woodlands, hedgerows, ditches, and damp meadows. It is less common in dry, chalky areas compared to other white butterflies.
Host Plants (Caterpillar): The caterpillars feed on various cruciferous plants (Brassicaceae family), particularly Cuckooflower (Cardamine pratensis), Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata), Hedge Mustard(Sisymbrium officinale), and Water-cress(Nasturtium officinale).
Adult Behavior: Adults are seen from April to October. They have a weak, fluttering flight. Males often aggregate on mud or animal droppings to consume necessary nutrients. Females are known to lay eggs on small, fresh plants.
Distinguishing Features: While the upperside is white with black wingtips (similar to the Small White), the underside of the hindwing is distinctively marked with green-grey, which is actually an illusion created by a combination of yellow and black scales.

Life Cycle

The Green-veined White typically has two, sometimes three, broods per year (diapause).

Egg: The female lays pale yellow, conical eggs, one at a time, mostly on the underside of foodplant leaves. They hatch in about 3 to 7 days.
Caterpillar (Larva): Upon hatching, the larva often eats its own eggshell. The caterpillars are green with white hairs and yellow-ringed spiracles, blending in with the plant stems. They feed solitarily for 3-4 weeks.
Pupa (Chrysalis): The caterpillar pupates away from the foodplant, attached to dry stems or other surfaces. Pupae are green or light brown, sometimes with black markings, designed to camouflage in the environment.
- First Brood: Emerges in late April/May, feeds, and pupates, with adults emerging in 10-20 days.
- Second/Third Brood: Eggs laid in late summer/early autumn result in caterpillars that turn into pupae that hibernate (diapause) over the winter.
- Adults: The adult butterfly lives for roughly 9-18 days. The second brood is generally more numerous than the first.

Differences from Other "Whites"

Dietary Habits: Unlike the Large White or Small White, the Green-veined White is not considered a significant garden pest, as it rarely eats cultivated cabbages.
Habitat: It prefers damp, shady areas, whereas the Small White is more common in dry gardens.
Appearance: It has prominent greenish veins on the underwing, while the Small White has plain pale-yellow underwings.

Pieris rapae (Small White)

The small white butterfly (Pieris rapae), or cabbage white, is a common garden pest with a rapid life cycle, producing two to three generations annually from spring to autumn. Adults lay single eggs on cruciferous plants, where larvae, or caterpillars, feed on leaves and hearts, causing significant damage. They overwinter as pupae, emerging to mate in April, with populations often reinforced by migrating insects.

Life Cycle and Development

Eggs: Laid individually (not in clusters like the Large White) on the underside of host plant leaves. They are initially white, turning yellow before hatching in 8–10 days.
Larvae (Caterpillars): Green, velvety, and well-camouflaged, they feed for roughly a month, passing through five stages (instars). They prefer feeding on the inner leaves or heart of brassicas.
Pupae (Chrysalis): The caterpillar forms a pupa on plants or nearby hard surfaces, fastened with a silk girdle. Pupae from late summer enter diapause to survive winter.
Adults: Small white wings with black tips on the forewings (more pronounced in the second generation). They are strong fliers.

Ecology and Behavior

Habitat: Found in varied habitats, particularly gardens, allotments, and vegetable farms where cruciferous plants are grown.
Diet: Primarily feeds on Brassica species (cabbages, kale, broccoli, rocket), but also wild crucifers.
Generation Timing: First brood appears in April/May, followed by stronger, subsequent broods in July/August.
Migration: The UK population is frequently boosted by migrants from continental Europe.
Predators: Subject to predation by birds and, notably, parasitism by wasps that lay eggs inside the caterpillars.

Garden Control

Physical Protection: Horticultural fleece or netting can prevent females from laying eggs on crops.
Biological Control: Encouraging natural predators, such as birds or parasitic wasps, helps maintain a balance.

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