Environmental Inequalities in DNA

When drugs enter the system, there is usually a reason why they are used. From medical treatment to recreational purposes, drugs affect DNA in many ways. Drugs can affect histones which are a group of proteins found in the chromatin of DNA. Histones provide an organizational structure for genes. As these genes coil around the histones, they can tighten/loosen up which can control the gene expression. Drug exposure can affect specific histones, modifying gene expression in localized brain regions. On the other hand, these histones can be manipulated to be modified which can be used to also treat different substance use disorders. If we can figure out what histones and genetic information can be manipulated will be important. This genetic material and information can not only show how DNA can be affected by drugs but could also help with the idea and process of gene editing. This information is important because it can and will lead to new information and treatments in any medical field.

Variations in an individual's genetic makeup result in different reactions. The reactions of different genetics and their responses to different drugs are called pharmacogenetics. Drugs are metabolized differently by enzymes in the body which can be determined by the genetic makeup of the person taking the drug. There are drugs mentioned by the Merck Manual that list instances where genetic makeup causes different effects on drugs. Some drugs can change how someone is breathing during a medical procedure and other drugs can affect the cells in a different manner which causes DNA functions to alter.   

Sometimes, medical drugs can alter the expressions of genes or even cause mutations in DNA. These can eventually alter different DNA functions and sequences which cause a different function. For example, with cancer treatment, the cancer cells are attacked by the chemotherapy drugs which affect the cancer cells but also affect healthy cells which also end up leading to other health problems. These DNA effects from drugs help scientists and workers in the medicinal field to help develop safer drugs with the same effective treatment without causing long-term genetic damage. 

The NIDA (National Institution of Drug Abuse) advances the science of drug use and addiction through basic and clinical biomedical neuroscience and behavioral research. This is important because researchers look at the DNA of people that have gone through substance abuse as their DNA is researched to see how various substances have affected the DNA. This is very interesting because there are countless people ranging from all economic backgrounds, ethnicities, and more that suffer from substance abuse. Researching DNA that has gone through substance abuse, it will be able to provide important fundamental information to prevent and/or intervene in drug use and addiction. 

        [Authors] conducted a study on how the use of cannabis affected genes and education attainment. The introduction went into some detail about what had changed in the DNA of frequent cannabis users. It was noted that methylation in DNA had been modified as well as “in tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-dependent subjects, and in a rat model of prenatal THC exposure to CB1 and CB2. These included DNA modifications in catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene and in PACSIN1, a kinase involved in neuron morphogenesis and neurodevelopmental processes.” 

DNA is greatly affected by the harmful effects that ionizing radiation can cause. Scientists today are doing multiple experiments and finding more and more harmful effects that this radiation causes. Even though we know that radiation is harmful to our DNA, we still use it to our benefit to kill certain cells like cancer cells in our bodies. Even with radiation therapy, it still causes harmful mutations in the DNA that are irreversible. The attempt to fix these can be more harmful than beneficial to a human's body.

Poverty is an ongoing cycle in our society; once you enter it, you rarely escape it. It's the sad truth many people face this today and are juggling more than one job trying to support their families; it’s no way to live. We wanted to dive deeper into socioeconomic status's effects on DNA, specifically with mutations that cause cancer, heart problems, etc. This is based on where these people live and what environmental factors like water supply, air pollutants, and other factors like food/dietary and medical resources are available for them. Like socioeconomic status, social capital plays a significant role in affecting how inequality affects not only people but also their DNA.

Poverty affects not only economic status but also biological influences. People, especially children, are susceptible to long-term biological effects when exposed early in life. “Experience gets under the skin” (Hertzman, 2020, p.4). The mental, physical, and biological effects of poverty all have long-lasting effects on a child's primarily biological development. Growing up in a dysfunctional society, neighborhood, family, etc., has the “biological capacity” to influence that person's health, well-being, learning, and behavior. “Not only must experiences have biological effects, but also these effects must, in turn, be mediators of long-term developmental outcomes and the expressions of gradients in human development” (Hertzman, 2020, p.4). Poverty can be considered a biological pathway to health problems and DNA mutations later on in life. A child's social environment, such as being exposed to poverty and the factors that come along with it, are fundamental determinants of human development and health throughout life. Those who experience this are often exposed to higher chances of mutations in DNA, heart disease, diabetes, and other medical conditions.

Inequity is the lack of fairness or justice, which affects people of color, minorities, and low socioeconomic classes the most. “Poverty poisons the brain” (Lende, 2012, p. 183) is a concept that addresses the importance of inequality and poverty in the U.S. According to Daniel Lende, the author of Poverty Poisons the Brain, this article talks about the impact of inequality and how experience becomes “embodied.” Based on this research, Lende aims to understand a neuro anthropological approach to poverty better. Neuroanthropology is the study of the relationship between culture and the brain. Inequity and inequality utilize the dynamics of stress and production of inequality to try and transform research on poverty, children, and future policy recommendations. This research data showed that high levels of unhealthy amounts of stress hormones in lower class children can cause harm in neural development (Krugman, 2012, p. 183). This is why escaping poverty is so difficult, leading to the continuous cycle of poverty. The inequity these kids face due to our failing fight against poverty is shameful. The exposure to “toxic stress” because of poverty at an early age can affect how a child's brain grows, leading to a future that's already against the odds. Socioeconomic status is inherited from prenatal factors, parental care, cognitive stimulation, etc., and leads to poor brain development, stunting cognition, academic performance/achievements, and mental health within impoverished children. Socioeconomic status is the standing or class of an individual or group, which can be measured by education, income, job status/occupation, and social capital. Because of the constant cycle of poverty, minorities and people of color are, more often than not, the groups most affected by low socioeconomic status due to where they live and what they can afford, such as food, medical care, and other resources. Social capital is the value derived from “positive” connections between people. Connecting with people helps you open the door to new opportunities and resources needed in life if you want it to be successful. However, people of color and minorities, due to the places they live and the higher likelihood of crime-ridden neighborhoods, often don’t trust the people they live amongst, leading to their low social capital and shrinking the connections they make. 

Epigenetics is the study of changes in an organism not caused by an alteration of the genetic code but rather by a change in gene expression. Research has shown that the biological effects of poverty are demonstrated through the genes of the person who inherits it from their parents. A study done by Molecular Psychiatry concluded: “that children who grow up in families below the poverty line are “more prone to mental illness and alterations in DNA structure” (Mendoza, 2022, p. 1). Poverty is an ongoing effect that affects not only mental health but also physical health, which both affect your DNA and can cause mutations that lead to cancer or other diseases. Other factors, such as poor nutrition and physical or psychological trauma, can affect a child’s biological development, specifically in the brain. Socioeconomic status shapes epigenetics, and epigenetics shape the development of future prominent ‘acute, chronic conditions.’ Past research has shown that socioeconomic status plays a significant role in human health and disease. Factors that have a determinant effect are lower-income can increase the risk of heart disease, diabetes, and different forms of cancer (Mendoza, 2022, p. 2). The inequity faced by specific groups of people within our society has led to a continuous cycle of poverty, health problems, and mutations in DNA, which are inherited and passed down through generations.

Epigenetics and DNA Methylation in Pregnancy 

Epigenetics is the study of both behavioral and environmental factors on genetics. When pregnant, both parental and environmental factors can alter the fetus’s DNA. Some of these factors include air pollution, exposure to drugs and alcohol, high stress levels, socioeconomic status, nutrition, and more. During pregnancy the modification of gene expression begins immediately after conception in the gametes and zygote and then continues throughout the gestation period. The area most impacted by the gestational environment is the brain. While both parental and environmental factors play a large role in neurological development, the most important role is that of the placenta (Zuccarello, 2022). With the brain absorbing a bulk of the maternal resources, it is the most likely to be negatively impacted by environmental impacts like exposure to toxic metals, air pollution, drugs, and alcohol.     

DNA methylation is the most common form of epigenetic modification in humans. It is a process in which the molecule methyl is added to the DNA in order to regulate gene expression. Placental methylation is this exact process but takes place in the placenta, an essential part of the body during pregnancy that provides oxygen and nutrients to the fetus. While it may be assumed that no harm can come from placenta methylation as it is such a common form of epigenetic modification, there are many potential adverse effects that can harm a fetus during this time. Due to the placenta's role in delivering nutrients and oxygen to the fetus, it is subjected to many environmental factors that can change its epigenetic profile (Novakovic, 2011). There has been evidence found that during this time, there is a higher risk of adverse exposures that negatively impact the intrauterine environment causing issues during fetal development and long term offspring health (Vlahos, 2019). The individuals living in communities with worse environmental risks are more likely to experience issues during placental methylation.

The Impacts and Inequities of Air Pollution on Pregnancy and Fetal Development 

Fetal development is an essential time in determining a baby's future health. It is common knowledge that exposure to alcohol, nicotine, drugs, and certain foods can harm a fetus, but what about air pollution? During pregnancy, the fetus is exposed to the same environmental impacts as the mother but the consequences prove to be much higher. During Utah winters, a fine particle called PM2.5 rises to dangerously high levels. Due to the size of these particles, the human body cannot defend itself. PM2.5 is able to reach the lungs and even be absorbed into the bloodstream causing more adverse effects. As they studied these impacts, they found that air pollution can cause harm to not only the individuals breathing in these particles but also harm fertility, pregnancy, and the health of the newborn (Macdonald, 2019). Individuals are completely helpless to air pollutants like PM2.5, especially when they also can not access healthcare. However, air pollution isn’t the only factor out of their control. The five most common barriers pregnant women in poverty face are access to healthcare, access to transportation, access to childcare, financial inequalities, and social support (Wood, 2020). The inequalities we may not realize on a daily basis, hit much harder when women are forced to fight for not only themselves but their unborn children as well. 

Air pollution comes with many adverse effects that can last a lifetime. For some, these impacts can be passed on from generation to generation. Individuals living in low income areas are at a higher risk of exposure to air pollutants. This is because they live closer to sources of air pollutants like power plants and factories. They also often live in cities where a large amount of air pollution comes from cars, trains, and buses. However, it’s not just about the part of town one lives in, who they live with also makes an impact. In a recent study it was found that communities made up of mostly African American individuals were at a higher risk of premature death from particle pollution than white communities(American Lung Association, 2022). Not only are they at a higher risk, but they are also less likely to receive proper medical care to treat these potential adverse impacts of air pollution during pregnancy. The disparity in clean air and proper medical care is not the only issue here. Individuals from minority and low income communities often lack the resources necessary to live a healthy lifestyle in general. From illnesses and diseases, to exposure to radiation and chemicals, the inequalities in our communities set individuals up for failure when we should be helping them succeed.

Authors

Wesley Baccay, Accounting/Finance, 2025

Matthew Stach, Architecture, 2024

Maddy Lutz, Criminal Justice, Sociology/Anthropology, Psychology, 2025

Breanna Roaix, Psychology, 2025

Cover Photo: Sangharsh Lohakare License by Unsplash

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