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Authors: Bhaskar Kura, Catherine Dunn, Amrita Iyer, Elena Bourbour Ajdari
Ports are a major source of economic activity and environmental pollution. They use a variety of equipment for loading/unloading and movement of cargo, such as marine vessels, cranes, trucks and railroads. These activities can cause large amounts of pollution to the air, water and soil media. Despite the pollution generated, it also serves as a medium for tourism with its cruise liners. This paper discusses port activities and how it effects the environment. The main focus of this paper is Knowledge Sharing for Sustainability of Ports. Sustainability indicators should help in evaluating port conditions and this knowledge sharing among the proposed 10 major world ports should accelerate economic growth and use of latest technologies for pollution reduction.
Author: Yubing Shi
International shipping carries around 80 per cent of global trade by volume and over 70 per cent by value. However, there is concern that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from international shipping lead to adverse effects on climate, human health and marine ecosystems. Currently the international climate change regime under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process and the IMO through its Marine Environment Protection Committee are grappling with this issue, and GHG emissions from international shipping have been partially regulated by amendments to Annex VI to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) in 2011 and 2014. These amendments aim to reduce GHG emissions from international shipping by means of technical and operational measures. However, research indicates that the adopted technical and operational measures alone would not achieve absolute emissions reduction due to projected growth of international seaborne trade. Currently it is still controversial whether it is time to consider market-based measures (MBMs) in furthering the reduction of shipping GHG emissions. This article examines whether it is necessary to adopt MBMs, proposes a preferred MBM, and suggests that a MBM be considered in or after 2016.
Authors: Jun Yuan, Szu Hui Ng, Weng Sut Sou
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has recently proposed several operational and technical measures to improve shipping efficiency and reduce the greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. The abatement potentials estimated for these measures have been further used by many organizations to project future GHG emission reductions and plot Marginal Abatement Cost Curves (MACC). However, the abatement potentials estimated for many of these measures can be highly uncertain as many of these measures are new, with limited sea trial information. Furthermore, the abatements obtained are highly dependent on ocean conditions, trading routes and sailing patterns. When the estimated abatement potentials are used for projections, these ‘input’ uncertainties are often not clearly displayed or accounted for, which can lead to overly optimistic or pessimistic outlooks. In this paper, we propose a methodology to systematically quantify and account for these input uncertainties on the overall abatement potential forecasts. We further propose improvements to MACCs to better reflect the uncertainties in marginal abatement costs and total emissions. This approach provides a fuller and more accurate picture of abatement forecasts and potential reductions achievable, and will be useful to policy makers and decision makers in the shipping industry to better assess the cost effective measures for CO2 emission reduction.
Authors: Evert A. Bouman, Elizabeth Lindstad, Agathe I. Rialland, Anders H. Strømman
CO2 emissions from maritime transport represent around 3% of total annual anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These emissions are assumed to increase by 150–250% in 2050 in business-as-usual scenarios with a tripling of world trade, while achieving a 1.5–2 °C climate target requires net zero GHG emissions across all economic sectors. Consequentially, the maritime sector is facing the challenge to significantly reduce its GHG emissions as contribution to the international ambition to limit the effects of climate change. This article presents the results of a review of around 150 studies, to provide a comprehensive overview of the CO2 emissions reduction potentials and measures published in literature. It aims to identify the most promising areas, i.e. technologies and operational practices, and quantify the combined mitigation potential. Results show a significant variation in reported CO2 reduction potentials across reviewed studies. In addition, no single measure is sufficient to achieve meaningful GHG reductions. Emissions can be reduced by more than 75%, based on current technologies and by 2050, through a combination of measures if policies and regulations are focused on achieving these reductions. In terms of emissions per freight unit transported, it is possible to reduce emissions by a factor of 4–6.
Authors: Mingliang Fu, Huan Liu, Xinxin Jin, and Kebin He
Shipping in China plays a global role, and has led worldwide maritime transportation for the last decade. However, without taking national or local port boundaries into account, it is impossible to determine the responsibility that each local authority has on emission controls, nor compare them with land-based emissions to determine the priority for controlling these emissions. In this study, we provide national- to port-level inventories for China. The results show that in 2013, the total emissions of CO, non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), SO2 and CO2 were 0.0741 ± 0.0004 Tg∙yr−1, 0.0691 ± 0.0004 Tg∙yr−1, 1.91 ± 0.01 Tg∙yr−1, 0.164 ± 0.001 Tg∙yr−1, 1.30 ± 0.01 Tg∙yr−1 and 86.3 ± 0.3 Tg∙yr−1 in China, respectively. By providing high-resolution spatial distribution maps of these emissions, we identify three hotspots, centered on the Bohai Rim Area, the Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta. These three hotspots account for 8% of the ocean area evaluated in this study, but contribute around 37% of total shipping emissions. Compared with on-road mobile source emissions, NOx and PM emissions from ships are equivalent to about 34% and 29% of the total mobile vehicle emissions in China. Moreover, this study provides detailed emission inventories for 24 ports in the country, which also greatly contributes to our understanding of global shipping emissions, given that eight of these ports rank within the top twenty of the port league table. Several ports in China suffer emissions 12–147 times higher than those at Los Angeles port. The ports of Ningbo-Zhou Shan, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Dalian dominate the port-level inventories, with individual emissions accounting for 28%–31%, 10%–14%, 10%–12% and 8%–14% of total emissions, respectively.
Authors: Susana López-Aparicio, Dag Tønnesen, The Nguyen Thanh, Heidi Neilson
We use a bottom-up approach to develop a comprehensive emissions inventory for the Port of Oslo for current and future scenarios, including compliance with environmental legislation. We estimate the emission of air pollutants (NOx, PM10, SO2) and greenhouse gases (GHGs; CO2, CH4, N2O) from shipping and land activities in the port. The inventory shows that oceangoing vessels are the main contributor, providing 63–78% of the total NOx, PM10, SO2 and CO2e emissions. The main contributors among oceangoing vessels are international ferries, cruises and container vessels, and the main contributors to emissions among harbour vessels are domestic ferries. We estimate the emissions from oceangoing vessels for different operational modes, obtaining the highest values at berth followed by emissions during vessel manoeuvres. We evaluate a 2020 scenario that takes account of (i) the expected increase in maritime traffic; (ii) compliance with a new regulation regarding sulphur content in ship fuel (<0.1%); and (iii) implementation of various mitigation measures. These measures include implementation of onshore power, and its combination with a speed reduction zone in the port, and the increase use of liquid natural gas (LNG). The results show that compliance with regulation provides a reduction of 90% and 10% in SO2 and PM10 emissions, respectively. Onshore power in combination with a speed reduction zone provides reductions of up to 15% in NOx and CO2 emissions by 2020 compared with 2013, and further reductions of up to 23% (NOx) and 17% (CO2e) if we extend the use of LNG among domestic ferries.
Authors: B. Luin, S. Petelin, F. Al Mansour
The paper shows that road geometry has a great impact on overall fuel consumption and emissions. Some roads connect traffic origins and destinations directly, while some take winding, indirect routes. Indirect connections result in longer distances driven and increased fuel consumption. A similar effect is observed on congested roads with stop and go traffic and on mountain roads with many changes in elevation. In this light, we propose a methodology for analysis of road networks based on energy consumed by the vehicles and the energy needed to build more efficient connections. This framework takes into consideration traffic volume, shares of vehicle classes, road geometry and energy needed for road operation and construction. Its application was illustrated through two case studies, one with macroscopic traffic data and one with microscopic traffic simulation that can also be applied for urban road network optimization.
Authors: R.A.O. Nunes, M.C.M. Alvim-Ferraz, F.G. Martins, S.I.V. Sousa
Several studies tried to estimate atmospheric emissions with origin in the maritime sector, concluding that it contributed to the global anthropogenic emissions through the emission of pollutants that have a strong impact on hu' health and also on climate change. Thus, this paper aimed to review published studies since 2010 that used activity-based methodology to estimate ship emissions, to provide a summary of the available input data. After exclusions, 26 articles were analyzed and the main information were scanned and registered, namely technical information about ships, ships activity and movement information, engines, fuels, load and emission factors. The larger part of studies calculating in-port ship emissions concluded that the majority was emitted during hotelling and most of the authors allocating emissions by ship type concluded that containerships were the main pollutant emitters. To obtain technical information about ships the combined use of data from Lloyd's Register of Shipping database with other sources such as port authority's databases, engine manufactures and ship-owners seemed the best approach. The use of AIS data has been growing in recent years and seems to be the best method to report activities and movements of ships. To predict ship powers the Hollenbach (1998) method which estimates propelling power as a function of instantaneous speed based on total resistance and use of load balancing schemes for multi-engine installations seemed to be the best practices for more accurate ship emission estimations. For emission factors improvement, new on-board measurement campaigns or studies should be undertaken. Regardless of the effort that has been performed in the last years to obtain more accurate shipping emission inventories, more precise input data (technical information about ships, engines, load and emission factors) should be obtained to improve the methodology to develop global and universally accepted emission inventories for an effective environmental policy plan.
Authors: Bing Qiao, Weijian He, Yujun Tian, Yichao Liu, Ouchen Cai, Yue Li
In this paper, the methods of waterborne transport data mining, emission reduction scenario analysis and ship emission calculation according to engine power are combined to establish models of ship emission inventory, reduction trend analogy, and investment effect analysis, which can achieve quantitative evaluations of ship emissions inventories, classification ratios and emission reduction effects of different scenarios, including to calculate air pollutant emissions of various kinds of ships in different areas and working conditions; to predict cargo turnovers of inland water, domestic coastal and marine ships and foreign marine ships; to analyze analogically emissions and reductions according to growths of national GDP and waterborne transport; to estimate the ship load tons and numbers of different kinds of vessels, as well as reductions per investment or operating costs of reduction facilities on board. The evaluation results show that the total emission of CO2 in China’s inland water and coastal areas from all kinds of transport ships and in other regions from domestic marine ships reached a peak in about 2020 to 2027 when fuel consumption per unit turnover in 2020 decrease by 27%%~45% compared with that in 2005 and then fell 20%~25% by 2030. In the scenarios when NOx and SOx emission reduction targets designed in accordance with relevant international conventions and domestic laws and regulations, NOx, SOx, PM emission reduction effects in China’s from all kinds of transport ships are significant, while the effects were limited or very limited if the reduction were only implemented 50% or 25% of designed targets. According to emission inventory and classification ratios, the control priority should be given to the larger emission sources, in turn: host engines of transport ships in navigation areas, auxiliary engines of transport ships when mooring or berthing in port areas, and the auxiliary operation ships in port areas, and comprehensive prevention and control countermeasures should be taken for effective control of emissions from inland water ships, foreign marine and domestic coast and marine ships in coastal areas.
Authors: Nishatabbas Rehmatulla, John Calleya, Tristan Smith
Numerous energy efficiency and carbon reduction technologies have been identified within the shipping sector but their overall implementation remains unknown. It is important to know the implementation in order to establish a credible baseline and evaluate progress towards low carbon shipping. Using a cross-sectional survey of shipowners and operators this paper attempts to gauge the implementation of over thirty energy efficiency and CO2 emission reduction technologies. The results show that whilst there is a good spread of implementation across the different measures, only a select number of measures in each of the categories are implemented at sufficient scale. Secondly, the measures with high implementation have tended to be those that have small energy efficiency gains at the ship level, and the uptake of CO2 reducing technologies, particularly alternative fuels is low despite their high potential for reducing CO2 emissions. If shipping's emissions are to be in line with other sectors in the future and follow a decarbonisation pathway, it would require higher implementation of energy efficiency and CO2 reducing technologies than those driven by current regulations alone.
Authors: Edward A. Sciberras, Bashar Zahawi, David J. Atkinson
Saving fuel and reducing emissions are major drivers in the marine industry, with a large number of potential modifications and machinery options available to enable the greening of shipping. Assessing which technology and what combination of solutions gives favourable economic results needs careful consideration of the vessel’s operational profile. Electrification of shipboard systems introduces operational flexibility, offering the potential for fuel savings and emission reductions. Auxiliary drives, energy storage and onshore power supply are three approaches which address the issues of ship fuel consumption/emissions, specifically during in-harbour operation of vessels. In this paper, the impact of these three technologies on ship environmental performance and energy consumption is assessed by considering a real case RoRo vessel sailing a real operational profile. Models of the resultant system are built such that the machinery configurations can be analysed separately or in conjunction with each other. The results stress the importance of the operational profile of the vessel, showing significant fuel and emissions reductions during in-harbour operations but relatively small savings when considering operation through a complete return voyage. The sensitivity of the results to fuel and utility costs are also considered and shown to have a large impact on the economic feasibility (or otherwise) of different solutions.
Authors: Linda Styhre, Hulda Winnes, John Black, Jimyoung Lee, Hanh Le-Griffin
Emissions of GHG from the transport sector and how to reduce them are major challenges for policy makers. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ships while in port based on annual data from Port of Gothenburg, Port of Long Beach, Port of Osaka and Sydney Ports. Port call statistics including IMO number, ship name, berth number and time spent at berth for each ship call, were provided by each participating port. The IMO numbers were used to match each port call to ship specifications from the IHS database Sea-web. All data were analysed with a model developed by the IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute for the purpose of quantifying GHG emissions (as CO2-equivalent) from ships in the port area. Emissions from five operational modes are summed in order to account for ship operations in the different traffic areas. The model estimates total GHG emissions of 150,000, 240,000, 97,000, and 95,000 tonnes CO2 equivalents per year for Gothenburg, Long Beach, Osaka, and Sydney, respectively. Four important emission-reduction measures are discussed: reduced speed in fairway channels, on-shore power supply, reduced turnaround time at berth and alternative fuels. It is argued that the potential to reduce emissions in a port area depends on how often a ship revisits a port: there it in general is easier to implement measures for high-frequent liners. Ships that call 10 times or less contribute significantly to emissions in all ports.
Authors: Hang Yu, Ying-En Ge, Jihong Chen, Lihua Luo, Caimao Tan, Ding Liu
CO2 emission generated by yard tractors at container terminals have been proven to be one of the main sources of pollution from maritime transportation. This paper aims to offer a method for evaluating the emissions from yard tractors during loading. First, an assignment model of export containers is built to capture the behavior of tractor arrivals at each block when the loading begins and the queuing theory is used to model the congestion happening in the yard. Second, emissions from yard tractors are evaluated based on the forecast arrivals. The emissions are categorized into two types: one from those tractors which are moving at normal speed and the other from those tractors sitting in traffic jam or at the stop-and-go state. Terminals with different calls and diversified storage utilization are simulated to show the performance of the proposed method and identify potential measures for traffic management aiming to reduce transport emissions. It is shown that the emissions from the yard tractors are closely related to the location of export containers and should be a main concern in operating a busy terminal.
Authors: Yan Zhang, Xin Yang, Richard Brown, Liping Yang, Lidia Morawska, Zoran Ristovski, Qingyan Fu, Cheng Huang
China has > 400 ports, is home to 7 of 10 biggest ports in the world and its waterway infrastructure construction has been accelerating over the past years. But the increasing number of ports and ships means increasing emissions, and in turn, increasing impact on local and regional air pollution. This paper presents an overview of the broad field of ship emissions in China and their atmospheric impacts, including topics of ship engine emissions and control, ship emission factors and their measurements, developing of ship emission inventories, shipping and port emissions of the main shipping areas in China, and quantitative contribution of shipping emissions to the local and regional air pollution. There have been an increasing number of studies published on all the above aspects, yet, this review identified some critical research gaps, filling of which is necessary for better control of ship emissions, and for lowering their impacts. In particular, there are very few studies on inland ports and river ships, and there are few national scale ship emission inventories available for China. While advanced method to estimate ship emission based on ship AIS activities makes it now possible to develop high spatial- and temporal-resolution emission inventories, the ship emission factors used in Chinese studies have been based mainly on foreign measurements. Further, the contribution of ship emissions to air pollution in coastal cities, the dispersion of pollution plumes emitted by ships, or the chemical evolution process along the transmission path, have so far not been systematically studied in China.
Authors: Fatih Alver, Betül Ayhan Saraç, Ülkü Alver Şahin
Turkey has an important role in maritime transport because it is surrounded on three sides by the sea and is strategically located between Asia and Europe. Therefore, air pollution due to ships is an important issue for Turkey. This study was carried out in Samsun, which is an important port on the Black Sea coast. Between 2010 and 2015, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrocarbons (HC) and particulate matter less than 10 μm size (PM10) from six different ship types were calculated for different operating modes. The estimated values for NOx, SO2, HC and PM10 were 728 tons, 574 tons, 32 tons and 64 tons, respectively. The highest emission values were generated by general cargo ships. The highest percentage of total pollutants (71.6% for NOx, 65.9% for SO2, 54.9% for HC and 62.9% for PM10) were generated in cruising mode by Ro-Ro (Roll-on/Roll-off) ships. Additionally, the maneuvering emissions were from 12.6% to 42.4% and the hoteling emissions were from 6.0% to 51.1% in total for all pollutants. In Ro-Ro ships, 80% of the total emissions are generated while the main engine is operational.
Authors: Thuy Chu-Van, Zoran Ristovski, Ali Mohammad Pourkhesalian, Thomas Rainey, Vikram Garaniy, Rouzbeh Abbassi, Sanaz Jahangiri, Hossein Enshaei, U-Shen Kam, Richard Kimball, Liping Yang, Ali Zare, Harry Bartlett, Richard J. Brown
This study investigated particle and gaseous emission factors from a large cargo vessel for her whole voyage including at berth, manoeuvring and cruising. Quantification of these factors assists in minimising the uncertainty in the current methods of exhaust gas emission factor estimation. Engine performance and emissions from the main marine engine were measured on-board while the ship was manoeuvring and cruising at sea. Emissions of an auxiliary engine working at 55% of maximum continuous rating (MCR) were measured when the ship was at actual harbour stopovers. Gaseous and particle emission factors in this study are presented in g kWh−1 or # kWh−1, and compared with previous studies. Results showed that the SO2 emission factor is higher than that of previous studies due to the high sulphur content of the fuel used. The particle number size distributions showed only one mode for different operating conditions of the ship, with a peak at around 40–50 nm, which was dominated by ultrafine particles. Emission factors of CO, HC, PM and PN observed during ship manoeuvring were much higher than that of those recorded at cruising condition. These findings highlight the importance of quantification and monitoring ship emissions in close proximity to port areas, as they can have the highest impact on population exposure.
Authors: Andrés Ortega Piris, Emma Díaz-Ruiz-Navamuel, Carlos A. Pérez-Labajos, Jesús Oria Chaveli
The revolutions in the maritime industry resulting from the implementation of integrated transport systems (bulk) and containerization (regular lines) at first had little effect on traditional mooring systems for ships in port. However, the research into innovation in automated mooring systems with increasingly advanced technologies carried on regardless. The so-called “Automatic Mooring Systems” (AMS), automatic systems that allow vessels to be moored without ropes, are being increasingly implemented in numerous ports in many different countries in the world, particularly in those whose traffic volumes have allowed the threshold of profitability of these infrastructures to be reached. But besides the financial benefits, the implantation of the AMS is having positive effects on the environment by reducing CO2 emissions in many commercial ports. The present work aims to measure for the first time the reduction in the CO2 emissions of merchant vessels as a consequence of the substitution of traditional mooring systems with the new automatic systems, continuing along the lines of previous works in the field of the reduction in CO2 emissions in ports. The estimation is made by applying the EPA and ENTEC “bottom-up” methodologies to the traffic in the port of Santander (Spain) in the year 2014. The implementation of the AMS, when compared to the traditional mooring systems, leads to a reduction in CO2 emissions of 76.78% calculated using the EPA method and 76.63% using the ENTEC method. Hence, the Port Authorities in their long-term planning decisions should promote the introduction of automatic mooring systems wherever the profitability thresholds of traffic allow it, as this will lead to significant environmental benefits by substantially reducing CO2 emissions during the maneuvers of merchant ships in maritime commercial ports.
Authors: Jihong Chen, Yijie Fei, Zheng Wan
International shipping currently accounts for about 3% of total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but would continue to rise as transport capacity expands. If the shipping industry aims at delivering its proportionate contribution to curbing global warming under the Paris agreement, the sector has to, inevitably, promote energy conservation and emission reduction. A rapidly growing oceangoing fleet size and correspondingly rising GHG emissions on a global scale raise an interesting research question: could a certain relationship between the two be characterized as a function so that further emissions can be forecast based on the model? The paper adopts an allometric approach based on biological scaling laws to explore the potential relationship between the fleet size and corresponding GHG emissions from shipping. The results show that both the slowdown of the navigation speed and the current implementation of the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and Energy Efficiency Operation Index (EEOI) are effective on the whole. By employing the model, the development trends of GHG emissions from shipping in the future can be better understood. Through model applications and result analysis, numerical results validate the effectiveness of this method. The paper not only studies the development of GHG emissions from shipping in the past, but aslo evaluates its specific emission quantities in the future which is in line with the GHG emission reduction targets proposed by IMO on the 72nd IMO meeting, which will be helpful for policy decisions on the quota of GHG emissions to the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and port administrators.
Authors: Yongbum Kwon, Hyoji Lim, Yongseok Lim, Heekwan Lee
This paper has aimed to evaluate the air pollution emissions from maritime transportation arrive in/depart from Port of Incheon using two different approaches; fuel-based (Tier 1) and activity-based (Tier 3) methodologies. So far, Tier 1 or 2 level of estimation approaches, based on the fuel consumption provided by national fuel supply statistics, have been reasonably supported for environmentalists and policy makers at national level of emission inventory analysis, even for the global analysis. When considering the local air quality such as in a port area, however, the fuel based approach would not be properly estimating the shipping air emission sector due to the characteristic of maritime transportation. In this study, the fuel-based air emission inventory provided by Clean Air Policy Support System (CAPSS), South Korea was compared and analyzed with the activity-based emission estimation produced by Portal Air Quality Management System (PAQman©). As a result, there discovered a significant gap in the air pollution emissions between fuel-based and activity-based estimations. The findings in this study implies the necessity and significance of local/regional level focused implementation for air quality improvement and regulatory framework especially in a port-city region e.g. Incheon. Although this paper still contains some limitations and assumption described, the results are confident enough to emphasize the application of the activity-based shipping emission estimation approach to discover the potential limitation, which has been unknown and not listed on the national air emission inventory using fuel-based approach.
Authors: Amir Sharafian, Paul Blomerus, Walter Mérida
Shipping is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant emissions. This study uses a life cycle assessment to compare emissions from domestic and imported liquefied natural gas (LNG), and heavy-fuel oil (HFO) for marine shipping. The findings show that only high-pressure dual-fuel (HPDF) engines robustly reduce well-to-wake GHG emissions by 10% compared with their HFO-fuelled counterparts. This engine technology is only available for large low-speed engines used in ocean-going vessels (OGVs). For smaller vessels, such as ferries, the current deployment of medium speed low-pressure dual-fuel (MS-LPDF) and lean burn spark ignition (LBSI) gas engines cannot reliably reduce GHG emissions. This is primarily due to the high levels of methane slip from these engines. For air pollution reduction, gas engines are found to be an effective means of reducing nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and, particulate matter without any additional engine aftertreatment. The HPDF engines, however, need aftertreatment or exhaust gas recirculation to meet the International Maritime Organization Tier III regulations. Sulphur controls, such as the 2020 act, move to limit sulphur to 0.5% globally. However, this will increase the cost of the HFO used by most OGVs, enhancing the economic case for natural gas fuel.
Authors: Miluše Tichavska, Beatriz Tovar, Daria Gritsenko, Lasse Johansson, Jukka Pekka Jalkanen
Vessel operations at port play a particular role in port-related air emissions. Hotelling, manoeuvring and cruising operations in the harbour areas generate a large share of local and global pollution, external costs and public health issues. Emission abatement demands effective regulation for vessel compliance and enforcement adequacy in despite of geographic differences in jurisdiction. A connecting relation between regulatory frameworks and atmospheric pollution from vessels operations at port is so far, missing in literature. This paper aims at filling in this gap by addressing exhaust gasses (NOx, SOx, CO, CO2) and particles (PM2.5) released from operative vessels in port with differing regulatory frameworks (Las Palmas, St. Petersburg, and Hong Kong). Estimations are based on the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM) and AIS traffic information over a twelve-month timeframe. Contribution of this paper relates to revealing emission patterns of vessel operations in port and the assessment of current regulatory frameworks. Results and lower emission profiles shed light to sulphur regulation differences and the potential benefits in new policy measures (polluter pays principle, cold ironing and others) of accounting operative modes and shipping sub-sectors.
Authors: D. Toscano, F. Murena
Ports represent a source of atmospheric pollutants that can contribute significantly to jeopardise air quality of port cities. NOx, SOx, PM and VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds) are emitted by ships during manoeuvring in ports at arrival or departure and during hotelling when moored at wharves. Several methods exist to estimate emissions in function of ships’ activity and engine parameters. However, there is still a significant uncertainty in these calculations. This is a severe limitation to develop effective plans of mitigation of air pollution in port cities. In this paper data of NOx and PM10 emitted in port and traffic of passenger and commercial ships have been reviewed and critically analysed. All vessels are lumped into three categories: cruise, passenger ships other than cruise and commercial ships. Emissions have been correlated with traffic data per year: passengers, hours at hotelling and manoeuvring, calls and tons of goods transported. The result is a summary of regression equations that can be used for the estimation of ship emissions in ports based on traffic data. The analysis does not consider emissions of all the ancillary activities that take place at land inside a port like: upload and download of goods, vehicular traffic, manipulation of containers and others.
Authors: Philip Cammin, Jingjing Yu, Leonard Heilig, Stefan Voß
Maritime ports play a crucial role in the development of domestic and international trade and economies. Although near-port communities profit from economic benefits, there exist significant concerns regarding exposure to air emissions, which affect human health and climate change. To tackle this issue, a port authority can develop emission reduction plans and projects, whose performance is tracked through an air emissions inventory (EI). Despite the attention on EI methodologies in the past, little research has focused on the implementation of methodologies in information systems. Therefore, a case study is conducted in this paper to investigate the motivation for creating EIs and the obstacles in the EI-creation process from an information systems perspective. The results indicate that data confidentiality and weak information systems are major obstacles, which hinder the creation of high-quality EIs and generate additional costs. Our findings enable port stakeholders and decision makers to understand the current obstacles and facilitate the development of adequate information systems that support the creation of high-quality EIs.
Authors: Hyangsook Lee, Dongjoo Park, Sangho Choo, Hoang T. Pham
Nowadays, maritime air pollution is regarded as a severe threat to coastal communities’ health. Therefore, many policies to reduce air pollution have been established worldwide. Moreover, there has been a shift in policy and research attention from greenhouse gases, especially CO2, to other air pollutants. To address the current local environmental challenges, this research analyzes the non-greenhouse gas emissions inventory (CO, NOx, SOx, PM, VOC, and NH3) from ships in the second biggest port in Korea, the Port of Incheon (POI). A bottom-up activity-based methodology with real-time vessel activity data produced by the Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) is applied to obtain reliable estimations. NOx and SOx dominated the amount of emission emitted from ships. Tankers, general cargo ships, cruise ships, and container ships were identified as the highest sources of pollution. Based on the above results, this study discusses the need for long-term policies, such as the designation of a local emission control area (ECA) and the establishment of an emission management platform to reduce ship-source emissions. Furthermore, this study elucidates that significant emissions come from the docking process, ranging from 33.9% to 42.0% depending on the type of pollutant when only the auxiliary engines were being operated. Therefore, short-term solutions like applying exhausted gas cleaning systems, using on-shore power supplies, reducing docking time, or using greener alternative fuels (e.g., liquefied natural gas or biofuels) should be applied and motivated at the POI. These timely results could be useful for air quality management decision-making processes for local port operators and public agencies.
Authors: Xuezong Tao, Qin Wu
To correctly estimate both energy consumption and CO2 emissions of hinterland transport, the currently accepted Activity – modal Structure – energy Intensity – emission Factor (ASIF) method needs to be revised. Therefore, this study introduces the concept of both “yard-door-port” transport chain and semi-life cycle assessment, and establishes a generalized analytical framework. This framework considers all energy consumption and well-to-wheel (WTW) emissions of main-haulage, loading/unloading, pre-/post-haulage, and transshipment of both loaded container movement and empty container repositioning. An empirical study of the Yiwu-Ningbo corridor shows that the energy consumption and CO2 emissions were 82.675 ktce and 249.414 kt in 2017, respectively. Depending on the factors that are not considered, total energy consumption and CO2 emissions will be underestimated by 0.04–45.50% and 0.08–45.37%, respectively. All-road transport consumes 99.17% of the total energy and emits 98.84% of the overall WTW CO2 emissions. The intensities of energy consumption and CO2 emissions for the road-rail combined transport are 81.34% and 74.24% lower than those of all-road transport, respectively. Accordingly, decreasing the energy intensity of semi-trailers and shifting container traffic from all-road transport to road-rail combined transport are effective measures to save energy and reduce CO2. This revised ASIF method enabled the reasonable estimation and structural analysis of energy consumption and CO2 emissions under different scenarios.
Authors: Lei Yang, Qijun Zhang, Yanjie Zhang, Zongyan Lv, Yanan Wang, Lin Wu, Xi Feng, Hongjun Mao
Ship pollution has become a hot global issue. This study established a basic information database of Tianjin Port ship emissions and used it to screen representative ship types and perform real-world ship measurements by a portable emission measurement system (PEMS), which generated localized emission factors. The results show that the localized emission factors are significantly higher than those recommended in recommended in Chinese guidelines, which will lead to lower calculation results of the previous inventory. A high temporal-spatial ship emission inventory for Tianjin Port was developed using a “bottom-up” method based on automatic identification system (AIS) data by combining localized emission factors. The total estimated ship emissions for SO2, NOX, PM10, PM2.5, THC and CO in 2018 were 1.453 × 104 t, 2.861 × 104 t, 2.04 × 103 t, 1.82 × 103 t, 1.13 × 103 t, and 2.21 × 103 t, respectively. NOX was the primary pollutant, accounting for 56.9%, followed by SO2 (28.9%). The use of low-sulfur fuel in the port area has significantly reduced the discharge of SO2 and primary particles. The main channel and anchorage are the areas with the highest emission intensity. The intermonth ship emissions varied according to the ship activity, lowest in February and highest in May. The contribution of cargo transportation vessels to various pollutant emissions is more than 60%. Main engines (MEs) were the largest source of emissions, followed by auxiliary engines (AEs). NOX and SOX from ships have the greatest impact on the air quality in the surrounding area, especially in summer and autumn, as analyzed by the atmospheric dispersion modeling system (ADMS) model. Our research will update localized emission factors and inventories and evaluate the impact of ship emissions on air quality.
Authors: Yiqi Zhang, Sebastian D Eastham, Alexis KH Lau, Jimmy CH Fung, Noelle E Selin
Shipping activities contribute to degraded air quality and premature mortalities worldwide, but previous assessments of their health impact have not yet differentiated contributions from domestic and international shipping at the global level. The impacts of domestic shipping can affect different populations, and domestic and international shipping emissions are governed under different regulatory systems. Thus, a consistent global analysis comparing the health impacts from domestic and international shipping could inform policy making in attempts to coordinate policies across multiple scales to address the health burden of shipping emissions. In this study, we create bottom-up global ship emission inventories based on ship activity records from the automatic identification system, and then apply the GEOS-Chem atmospheric model and global exposure mortality model to quanitfy shipping-related PM2.5-concentrations and associated mortalities. We also quantify the public health benefits under different control scenarios including the 2020 0.5% sulphur cap, a post-2020 0.1% sulphur cap, and a post-2020 Tier III NOx standard. We find that 94 200 (95% confidence interval: 84 800–103 000) premature deaths were associated with PM2.5 exposure due to maritime shipping in 2015, of which 83% were associated with international shipping activities and 17% with domestic shipping. Although the global health burdens of ship emissions are dominated by international shipping, the fraction varies by region: 44% of shipping-related premature deaths in China come from domestic shipping activities. We estimate about 30 200 (27 200–33 000) avoided premature deaths per year under a scenario consistent with a 2020 0.5% sulphur cap. We find that a post-2020 Tier III NOx standard would have greater benefits than a post-2020 0.1% sulphur cap, with the two policies reducing annual shipping-attributable PM2.5-related premature deaths by 33 300 (30 100–36 400) and 5070 (4560–5540), respectively.
Authors: Bei Wang, Qing Liu, Lei Wang, Yongjun Chen, Jisheng Wang
Shipping emission reduction is one of the most critical issues in the transportation industry and world emission reduction research. Ports, as important hubs and sources of emissions have also received much attention. This paper investigated the development process of port emission reduction from earlier ‘environmental factors and energy scheduling’ to ‘low-carbon and green ports’ by conducting a systematic review and Citespace visual analysis. It can be also concluded that the policy has a great impact on the development of this research field. Meanwhile, this review found that among the emission reduction measures for ships in port, the average percentage of the energy measures potential is 25%–70%. The range of optimization operation measures is 30%–50%. There is a gap between the two measures. According to the diverse emission sources in the port, there is no significant difference (20%–60%) for the potential of measures application in land area. Therefore, before setting the reduction targets, ports need to know their emission level and establish emission inventories, as well as consider external factors (policy, economy, technology, etc.). Overall, port energy measures are the key points to achieving low and zero carbon targets. In the future, by addressing technical bottlenecks in energy use (such as hydrogen storage and maintenance), ports and ships will be able to further reduce their dependence on fossil fuels and increase their potential to reduce emissions. This paper aims to systematically review and explore the effects (experiences) and problems (challenges) of the abatement measures taken by different ports, to help low-abatement capacity ports to learn and find the measures that suit the emission reduction development most. For the choice of future energy, the port needs to analyze the corresponding policy factors and improve the abatement capacity through the integration of multiple measures, to understand the ‘zero carbon goal’ as soon as possible and make contributions to the environmental protection and ecological development of the region and world.
Authors: Jinxing Shen, Wenlong Gao, Jingwei Lu, Fengjiang Li, Xuejun Feng
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ports have gained increasing attention due to their significant impact on climate change. Nevertheless, the existing research in this domain remains fragmented, with limited generalizable findings. To address this gap, an integrative framework is proposed in this study to systematically review the literature and identify future research directions. Using the Web of Science database, a bibliometric analysis of 230 documents and an in-depth review of 68 studies are conducted, focusing on emission sources, emission calculations, and abatement technologies. Key findings can be drawn as follows: (1) Research on port-related GHG emissions has expanded rapidly since the Paris Agreement, but international collaboration and institutional coordination remain insufficient, hindering the development of comprehensive solutions. (2) Inconsistent classification of GHG emission sources across studies leads to biases and limits comparability. Reclassifying emissions based on equipment operation locations could improve both accuracy and cross-study alignment. (3) Activity-based approaches are the primary methods for emissions assessment but heavily rely on static emission factor datasets, particularly for container ports. Expanding these datasets for diverse port types, updating localized factors in real-time, and integrating alternative energy sources can enhance adaptability and accuracy. (4) Current mitigation strategies focus on technological innovations, energy substitution, and operational optimization. However, limitations such as high implementation costs, slow commercialization, and insufficient policy support continue to impede progress. To achieve zero-carbon port operations, future research should prioritize the integration of technical innovations with economic and policy frameworks. A multidisciplinary approach is essential for overcoming current barriers and promoting sustainable practices in port management.
Authors: Rong Shi, Yue Chen, Shuxia Yang, Xiaopeng Guo, Xiongfei Wang
Ports are critical points in the global logistics chain and are crucial for China to achieve its 2030 carbon peak goal. It is necessary to assess ports’ current carbon emission levels and predict future trends to formulate effective emission reduction strategies. However, differences among ports make it challenging to conduct a systematic assessment and prediction. Establishing a systematic port carbon emission analysis framework is important. An extended stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence, and technology (STIRPAT)-Tapio-Monte Carlo modeling framework is developed to analyze port-related carbon emissions. The Shanghai Port is used as a case study. The model identifies key emission drivers and projects static and dynamic carbon emission trajectories. The results show the following. (1) The number of berths of special container terminals and the number of terminal companies in coastal ports are the dominant factors affecting peak emissions in static and dynamic forecasts, with average variance contribution rates of 78.428%, 49.45% and 49.56%, respectively. (2) In the static simulation, Shanghai Port’s mean peak time is 2027, with peak carbon emissions of 4.17 million tons and a peak probability of 3.7%. (3) In the dynamic simulation, the average peak years are 2028.56 and 2028.57, with peak carbon emissions of 3.97 million tons and peak probabilities of 46.26% and 47.12%. Recommendations regarding technical upgrades, organizational optimization, and market incentives are provided for governments and port enterprises. The proposed framework contributes to the global discourse on low-carbon port development and provides a decision-support tool for emission management in maritime transport systems.
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