B2.2 / Modeling & Prototyping
B2.2 / Modeling & Prototyping
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Designers use modelling to assist their understanding by simulating the subject matter they represent. Designers should consider systems, services and products in relation to what they should do, how they should behave, what they look like and whether they will be understood by the users in the manner intended.
Conceptual design
Conceptual design
B2.2.1.1 | Conceptual modelling in design
B2.2.1.1 | Conceptual modelling in design
Concept modelling is the visualisation of a designer's vision for an aspect of a product, system or service. Conceptual models are abstractions of the full design used to illustrate an idea or concept. Conceptual models differ from scale models or prototypes in that they do not try to define features of an end-product, but rather try to communicate design directionality. Conceptual models may propose features related to aesthetics, ergonomics, mechanics, construction, user experience (UX), usability, and value communication (branding).
In different contexts, conceptual modelling is used to:
Facilitate the communication of ideas to stakeholders - reducing misunderstanding
Elicit feedback from stakeholders in a design.
Allow designers to explore ('play with') ideas quickly and at a low cost.
Provide a shared driving vision for design teams.
Provide proof of concept that a design will 'work'.
Test materials or production methods.
Problems with conceptual models stem from their abstract nature. The lack of detail can lead to misinterpretation or misunderstanding.
B2.2.1.2 | Conceptual modelling tools and skills
B2.2.1.2 | Conceptual modelling tools and skills
Generally, conceptual models are made using materials and processes that allow quick and cheap expression of ideas. They can be graphical, physical or even virtual.
In many industries, conceptual model-making is done by highly trained and experienced designers with significant craftmanship.
Concept model for a Kindergarten in Okazaki, Aichi, Japan by MAD architects uses foam core panels, balsa, card and a 3D printed 'dome'.
Graphical models
Graphical models
B2.2.2.1 | 2D and 3D graphical models
B2.2.2.1 | 2D and 3D graphical models
Orthographic projections of an iron
Graphical modelling represents objects on a medium that physically has only two dimensions (2D) - most commonly paper or a computer screen. Graphical models are restricted in that they can only provide the beholder with the stimulus of sight.
Graphical models can take many forms, but their prime functions are:
To present information in a way that allows easy insight.
To aid discussion and development of what is being presented.
To refine ideas to the technically possible.
Graphical models are different from concept models in that they try to accurately define design features rather than merely provide directionality.
2D graphical models are often diagrammatic - They provide a 'flat view' of an object annotated with labels indicating for instance dimensions, material choices or construction techniques.
The most commonly used form of 2D graphical modelling in the design of physical objects is an orthographic projection. In architecture orthographic projections of buildings are called elevation views. Another common 2D projection is the section view - a view that shows the inside of an object.
Architectural elevation view
Architectural section view
Architectural plan view
Despite the medium of graphical models being two-dimensional, an impression of the third dimension (3D) can be provided through the use of perspective or a combination of projections from different sides of a design.
When creating graphical models on a computer these can be animated to give the viewer the illusion of being able to orbit around a design or even see parts move. Because of advances in computer-aided design (CAD), in many industries, orthographic projections (and other 2D graphical models) are usually generated from objects that are modelled in 3 dimensions first.
Sophisticated Computer-Aided design can bring 3D graphical models quite close to what a final product in the real world would look like. Software can calculate the effect of different light sources on a modelled object. This process, called rendering, not only calculates where shadows are, but also the reflection of light of parts of the object (that in turn might cause shadows on other objects). Photo-realistic rendering is very resource intensive (needs a good graphic card and powerful computer) and the algorithms calculating the light effects are proprietary and often expensive to use.
B2.2.2.2 | Part and assembly drawings
B2.2.2.2 | Part and assembly drawings
An assembly drawing shows how parts of a product fit together. They are commonly used to show how to assemble parts of model kits or flat-pack furniture.
There are two types of assembly drawing:
A fitting assembly drawing shows the parts put together and can be in 2D or 3D.
An exploded assembly drawing that shows the parts separated, but in the correct orientation for fitting together. Usually drawn in 3D.
A parts drawing provides the information to assemble a product in a similar way that an assembly drawing does but with the additional benefit of a List of Parts (LoP) or a Bill of Materials (BoM). These parts lists provide detailed information about the parts, materials, and quantity required to assemble the product.
Ikea Kura Reversible Bed full assembly instructions. Click here to see the full detailed assembly instructions. Note how the instructions are communicated graphically, with no words.
2D fitted assembly drawing.
3D parts assembly drawing.
3D parts drawing with Bill of Materials (BoM).
B2.2.2.3 | Perspective, projection and scale
B2.2.2.3 | Perspective, projection and scale
Three dimensions can be simulated on a two-dimensional medium by drawing in perspective. There are several types of perspective drawings. Some are easier to construct than others. At the early stages of the design process, designers will prefer quicker methods over more sophisticated methods, even though the latter might provide a more realistic view of an object. The most common perspective drawing types are:
Oblique
Isometric
One-point perspective
Two-point perspective
Three-point perspective
The last three listed types of perspective drawings attempt to represent space by foreshortening through the use of vanishing points.
Projections are two-dimensional views of an object. Where a perspective drawing displays an object from a single viewpoint, projections look the same as long as the beholder remains in the same plane (usually perpendicular to the object).
There are different standards for projecting views. The most common are first and third angle projections. In order to prevent misunderstandings about a design presented with projections, the designer will always indicate which standard is used.
When producing a graphical model on paper in a context where the dimensions of the object are under scrutiny, a designer will attempt to draw all parts of the object to scale. This means the designer chooses a fixed ratio between the size of any element in the drawing and the size of that same element in real life.
Scale statements are found on most more formal design drawings (assembly drawings, maps, etc.). The most common format is the representative fraction. A scale of 1:4 means that one length unit in the drawing is equivalent to 4 length units in real life.
When using CAD software, the scale ratio is automatically calculated for the output medium. E.g. if a designer prints a design on an A3 sheet of paper, the software will determine the scale of the end result and print that on the drawing.
B2.2.2.4 | Formal and informal drawing techniques
B2.2.2.4 | Formal and informal drawing techniques
Almost all examples of graphical models presented above are forms of formal drawing techniques. They are constructed following (strict) standards of a particular industry or standardizing institution. These standards are helpful as the interpretation of graphical models needs to be the same across countries and industries. This is mainly the case because the purpose of these drawings is to convey technical details. Formal drawings are often made with the use of technical aids such as drafting tables, t-squares and protractors.
When designers produce freehand sketches they often include brief notes or annotations to help explain the thinking behind the visual image. A range of freehand techniques can be used in the early stages of the design process to explore shape, aesthetics, relative parts and basic assembly.
Annotated freehand sketches exploring design ideas
Common tools for drafting formal drawings
Rendered digital concept drawing. Does not convey technical details.
2D and 3D freehand drawing
Advantages
Quick to create.
Promotes creativity and experimentation.
Easy to understand by a non-technical audience.
Disadvantages
Inaccurate
Can not be changed easily.
Relies heavily on the correct interpretation of the viewer to interpret
Formal drawing:
Advantages
Accurate
Detailed (dimensions)
Can be used to construct the product (assembly instructions)
Not easy to understand by a non-technical audience.
Disadvantages
Easy to adapt when made digitally
Time-consuming to create.
Requiring a high level of skills.
Requiring specialist equipment or software
Physical Models
Physical Models
B2.2.3.1 | Scale Models
B2.2.3.1 | Scale Models
Physical models allow for the presentation of ideas for inspection using potentially all our senses.
Sight or vision
Hearing or audition.
Smell or olfaction.
Taste or gustation.
Touch or tactition.
A physical model can be used to obtain important data such as test and simulation measurements. A model of a physical object presents a means for manipulating the object in order to analyse it fully and get constructive feedback. Physical models can also be quickly and easily altered and modified to react to feedback.
A scale model is a smaller or larger physical model of an object. Scale models are commonly seen in architecture when a full-size building is modelled by greatly reducing the scale. This enables designers, and clients to visualise the structure of the building, but also the exterior and interior aesthetics and lines. Unforeseen factors can be highlighted, and modifications can easily be made before going to full-scale production.
Small-scale models are generally used to express an idea or look at the overall aesthetics and proportions of A product. They are used for a number of products and purposes but tend to be low fidelity and do not express great detail regarding construction methods or use the exact materials of the final product.
Small-scale modelling can be a fast method to develop design ideas, or it can be something far more sophisticated and expensive like an architectural model that is used to communicate design thinking, specific ideas or aesthetic issues.
B2.2.3.2 | Aesthetic Models
B2.2.3.2 | Aesthetic Models
An aesthetic model is a model developed to look and feel like a real product. They are used to evaluate user appeal or in ergonomic testing. These models do not actually work (they are not prototypes) and are typically not intended to be handled greatly. The primary function is to communicate and test the aesthetic elements of a design or to evaluate the properties of a material:
Weight and balance: using materials similar in weight and density to the final production material, the model could be used to evaluate how heavy a design is, or how it balances. A good example of this might be a hand tool, portable device, or sports equipment.
Texture and surface qualities: finishes, paint, or textures might be applied to the surface to communicate how the surface looks, feels or reflects light.
B2.2.3.3 | Mock-Ups
B2.2.3.3 | Mock-Ups
Dyson mock ups - used as part of their design process.
Mock-ups are full-size models of a product made using inexpensive materials. They have some functionality, meaning that they can also be used as a prototype. Mockups are used to test:
How something works or feels.
Whether something fits into a specific space or room.
Proportions
Colour or finish
When designing a functional product, such as a household device, mock-ups can be used to test whether they suit typical human shapes and sizes. The cost of making mock-ups is often more than repaid by the savings made by avoiding going into production with a design which needs improvements.
2D models: exploring the configuration of the mechanisms.
3D models: Functional mock-up.
3D models: Finalised mock-up for presentation to the client.
B2.2.3.4 | Prototypes
B2.2.3.4 | Prototypes
A prototype is a sample or model built to test a concept or process or to act as an object to be replicated or learned from. A prototype is a further advancement from the mock-up. A prototype is a simple model built to test, evaluate and validate a design concept. Prototyping is used to provide specifications for a real, working product rather than a theoretical one. It is built to be tested and used in order to provide feedback to the design team from a variety of stakeholders in the product.
Prototypes are often put in the hands of users so that designers can observe how they are used. In this way, designers can gain feedback from the users, and learn more about the design context.
Prototypes can be used to test and refine specifications. They can also be used to help learn more about the design or (challenges to) the manufacturing context.
The fidelity of the prototype is the degree to which the prototype is exactly like the final product. Fidelity is usually classified into three groups:
Low-fidelity models are a conceptual presentation of an idea. They are not tangible or durable, but they do communicate basic information about form, shape, function, etc. Paper prototypes are a good example of low-fidelity prototypes
Mid-fidelity prototypes communicate more about an idea or concept. They may communicate some but not all of the functions of the design.
High-fidelity prototypes attempt to represent as close as possible the functionality of the final product. They are typically durable enough to be testable and used by the user group to gather usability data.
Examples of prototype handles that were used by the designers and users to refine the handle design. Learn more in this OXO Good Grips case study and in Topic 7.1 User Centered Design
B2.2.3.5 | Instrumented models
B2.2.3.5 | Instrumented models
Flow-vis Paint used in Formula 1
Instrumented physical models are prototypes equipped with the ability to take measurements that provide quantitative data on the performance of a product. They can be used to effectively investigate many phenomena such as fluid flows in hydraulic systems, aerodynamic patterns around cars in wind tunnels, variables such as velocity, force, bending, folding, or torque of a product.
Instrumented physical models contain testing equipment in the model itself and allow data to be logged for analysed whilst the model is in use. The data can later be analyzed and design, manufacture, and safety decisions can be made from it.
Digital twins
B2.2.3.6 | Evaluation of Physical Models
B2.2.3.6 | Evaluation of Physical Models
Advantages
Multi-sensory evaluation: Allows idea evaluation using all senses.
Explore and test ideas: Some ideas are more easily explorable in physical form compared to other modelling forms (e.g. a flat pack container that is folded out of a single sheet of material). Physical models can often be quickly manipulated.
Easily understandable: a physical representation of an idea, concept or design. Easily understood by non-technical audiences.
Communication: Allow for clear communication with clients and team members about the design. This is especially important when communicating with a non-technical audience
Tangible: it can be put in someone's hands or tested
User testing: Can be easily used in user trials to generate data; Particularly useful when gathering ergonomic data are trying to predict user behaviour.
Disadvantages
Time-consuming; creating models and iteration can be time consuming
Cost: The manufacturing of prototypes can add to the overall cost of the manufacturing of a product.
Environmental cost: Materials and processes used may produce waste or use raw materials that impact the environment.
Skill: A model maker needs to be familiar with the materials or technology used to manufacture the models.
Accuracy: Mistaken assumptions that the model accurately represents the reality of the design context may lead to misinterpretation regarding ergonomics, the performance of materials, functioning, aesthetic appeal etc. However, careful analysis and inquiry can lessen this risk.
Type of Physical Model
Advantages
Use cases
Aesthetic Model
Look like the final model
Evaluate aesthetic appeal
Use to consider color combinations, textures, form, etc.
Get client feedback on aesthetic aspects of a design
Mock-up
Scaled or full-size replica
Communicate form and proportion of a design
Low-fidelity models can be made relatively quickly
Used to gather client feedback
Prototypes
Validate that a design can work as intended
User testing of functionality
Develop and improve the functionality of a design
Instrumented Models
Provide accurate quantifiable data about a design as it is being used or tested
Can provide data in real-time
Understand how physical forces act on a design
Allow for very precise measurement
Evaluate how a design performs under various conditions and forces
Test performance of materials (i.e. impact testing, heat resistance, etc.)
Scale models
Can be larger than the actual design and thus communicate fine details
Can be smaller than the actual design and thus save materials, time, etc, as elements of the design are developed
Used to gather client feedback about a design
If it is a small design like a watch, a larg-scale model can help communicate details that would otherwise not be easy to see
If it is a large design, like a car door, a small-scale model can allow the designer to work out the details of a mechanism without having to invest time and money in producing a life-size model
Computer Aided Design
Computer Aided Design
B2.2.4.1 | Types of CAD software
B2.2.4.1 | Types of CAD software
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software helps designers create visual representations of their ideas relatively quickly. Eiter in two dimensions or in three. CAD can reduce the high costs of creating physical models. However, CAD currently can not totally replace physical modelling, as user groups and test subjects often have difficulty interacting with digital designs of physical products.
2D CAD software such as Adobe Illustrator, CorelDraw and Inkscape are most commonly used in graphic design. This software can however also be harnassed to create drawings that can be used as input for Computer-Aided Manufacturing processes (e.g. laser cutting or simple CNC routing).
Other examples of the use of 2D CAD are the development of floorplans and elevation views in architecture, in the creation of patterns for fashion design and in the design of electronic circuitry.
Office life before the invention of AutoCAD and other drafting software was quite different. Prior to the release of AutoCAD in 1982, engineering drawings were all done by hand using different-grade pencils, erasers, T-squares, and set squares. Even after all the manual labor, if a change was required, the engineers and toolmakers had to start from scratch and make the sketches all over again. Nowadays, architecture designers and other drafters are mainly just clicking their mouse and keyboard, and not hunched over a giant desk, wondering if any changes will be made to their final drafts.
As computers have become more powerful and software more sophisticated, CAD allows the quick creation of 3D models of ideas as well. In fact, applications for 3D modelling have become so user-friendly that designers will often choose to model in 3D even when 2D would technically be sufficient. The benefit of modelling in 3D in such situations is that parts can be placed relative to each other as they will be in real life.
Commonly used 3D CAD software packages are Sketchup, Solidworks, Fusion 360, TinkerCAD and Onshape.
A table designed for laser-cutting or CNC routing in 2D and in 3D. The 2D parts are exported surfaces from the 3D model.
An assembly modelled in Fusion 360 with a 'feature tree' on the left side. In this tree each modeling step is exactly defined and can be adjusted at any time.
Modelling of design using CAD software falls into one of two categories:
Direct modelling: Geometry is modelled without spending time explicitly defining interdependent features of parts or constraints on material or mechanical properties. Direct modelling is often compared to modelling in clay.
Parametric modelling: Geometry is modelled using explicitly defined features and constraints. This allows users to automate repetitive features and changes to one part might automatically lead to changes to another part of a model. E.g. changing the diameter of a bolt might automatically change the diameter of a corresponding nut and the software might give a warning if the geometry of that nut does no longer fit in the product assembly.
Direct modelling usually is quicker and allows more freedom. Parametric modelling usually is more exact and more adjustable over multiple iterations or variations.
Push-pull direct modeling of solid CAD models
B2.2.4.2 | Surface and solid models
B2.2.4.2 | Surface and solid models
Another categorization of 3D CAD modelling is
Surface models provide (often photo-realistic) images of a model, offering some machining data but no data about the interior of the product. Surface modelling focuses more on the external aspects of an object. It develops an object by stretching surfaces over curves created by the designer.
Solid models provide a complete set of data for the product to be realized including internal dimensions and volume. Solid modelling was originally developed for machine design and is utilised for design testing (e.g. F.E.A.) and rapid prototyping (e.g. 3D printing).
Solid modelling in Solidworks
Surface modelling in Rhinoceros 3D
B2.2.4.3 | Data modelling
B2.2.4.3 | Data modelling
In data modelling, (statistical) data or information is used to analyze the properties of a virtual or real-life model. Data modelling can be used to simulate situations, test features, make predictions or analyze options.
A database with material properties can be used to model and test stress impact on a design.
A Geographic Information System (GIS) with data on the geographical features of a terrain can be used to simulate the impact of a natural disaster.
Video footage of an athlete in action can be used to explain performance.
B2.2.4.4 | Virtual prototyping
B2.2.4.4 | Virtual prototyping
Virtual prototyping involves the use of surface and solid modelling to develop (photo-realistic) interactive models that allow testing and validation of designs before committing to making physical prototypes. A virtual prototype allows the designer to play with key aesthetic or functional features of a design:
Simulating stress impact
Animating moving parts
Placing a product in a real-life environment
B2.2.4.5 | Bottom-up and top-down modelling
B2.2.4.5 | Bottom-up and top-down modelling
When designing using a “bottom-up” approach, a designer starts with only a rough concept of the finished product and its parts or features without strict constraints or design criteria. The designer then starts modelling individual parts (starting with the most crucial ones) and worries about assembly later. In this approach, the design of individual parts may heavily influence the form and/or function of the end product. A well-known example of the bottom-up approach is the development of the Mars rover Curiosity in which different teams from different countries developed different components more or less independently and combined these later.
When designing using a "Top-down” approach, development starts with establishing a clear set of design criteria and technical specifications for the end product. Form and function are largely defined in this. The designer then works out individual parts that explicitly fit the defined end product. Top-down approaches are common in design projects where exploration while designing is expensive.
Bottom-up and top-down approaches can apply to simple products as well as complex systems. Usually, a mix of both approaches is applied. If a more open-ended exploration of options is required a more bottom-up approach would be used. If a more result-driven process is required a more top-down approach would be used.
B2.2.4.6 | Digital humans
B2.2.4.6 | Digital humans
Digital humans are computer simulations of a variety of mechanical and biological aspects of the human body such as strength, field of vision and range of motion. They can be used to interact with a virtual prototype. Human simulation in product design enables a product to be developed more quickly, as there can be more design iterations in less time.
Digital humans enable manufacturing plants to be developed more quickly and manual workflow to be optimized. They improve worker safety and reduce compensation costs resulting from accidents. Machines and other equipment can be positioned to optimize cycle time and avoid hazards.
Digital humans are also used to train real people in completing tasks without the need for physical prototypes or actual equipment and so reduce the cost of training manufacturing and maintenance personnel.
There are many ways that digital humans can be developed and used to interact with products.
Motion capture is the recording of human and animal movement by any means, for example, by video, magnetic or electromechanical devices. A person wears a set of acoustic, inertial, LED, magnetic or reflective markers at each joint. Sensors track the position of the markers as the person moves to develop a digital representation of the motion.
A motion capture session records the movements of the actor, not their visual appearance. The captured movements are mapped to a 3D model (for example, human or robot) to move the model in the same way. Capturing a number of users’ movements will allow designers to design better ergonomic products. Motion capture allows the designer to understand the users’ physiological requirements.
Haptic technology is a technology that interfaces with the user via a sense of touch. Also known as force feedback technology, haptic technology works by using mechanical actuators to apply forces to the user. Haptic technology allows the user to become part of a computer simulation and interact with it, enabling the designer to observe the user’s performance and design a better outcome. It can also be used in situations where it is difficult to train in a real environment. Haptic technology is also used in feedback devices used in home entertainment consoles.
State-of-the-art or forced-feedback haptic devices allow the user to feel and touch virtual objects with a high degree of realism. This technology is also being used in pioneering remote surgery procedures. The surgeon can be in a completely different part of the world, and yet still complete complex surgery on a patient.
Some commercial computer game consoles already benefit from early-developed haptic devices, like the steering wheels that torque and vibrate on driving games.
Virtual reality is the ability to simulate a real situation on the screen and interact with it in a near-natural way. VR is computer generated and allows the user to interact with the data that gives the appearance of a three-dimensional environment using a headset and other wearable technology.
Animation is the ability to link graphic models and images together in such a way as to simulate motion or a process. Animation can be used to simulate various design concepts and contexts. They can also use digital humans to allow different scenarios to be tested.
Manufacturing companies can see how safe a product or production system will be when they are being produced through an animation of that system. Animations can also be used to test and evaluate products for potential design issues.
B2.2.4.7 | Finite element analysis (FEA)
B2.2.4.7 | Finite element analysis (FEA)
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a powerful computational method used to predict how a physical object will behave under certain conditions. It's like a virtual laboratory where engineers can test designs without building physical prototypes, saving time and resources. FEA uses the mathematics of the finite element method, a popular method for numerically solving differential equations arising in engineering and mathematical modeling.
Some benefits of Finite Element Analysis are:
Cost-effective: FEA can significantly reduce the need for physical prototypes, saving time and money.
Time-saving: Simulations can be run quickly, allowing for rapid design iterations and optimization.
Improved design: FEA helps identify potential problems early in the design process, leading to better and more reliable products.
Safety: FEA can assess the safety of products under various conditions, such as impact or extreme temperatures.
FEA is used in a wide range of industries, including:
Aerospace: Designing aircraft structures, engines, and other components.
Automotive: Developing cars, trucks, and other vehicles.
Civil engineering: Analyzing bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure.
Mechanical engineering: Designing machines and mechanical systems.
Biomedical engineering: Simulating the behaviour of medical devices and implants.
Rapid prototyping
Rapid prototyping
B2.2.5.1 | Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
B2.2.5.1 | Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
Laminated object manufacture (LOM) takes the sliced CAD data from a 3D model and cuts out each layer from a roll of material, using a laser or plotter cutter. These sliced layers are glued together to form the model, which is either built on a movable platform below the machine or on locating pins when using card. LOM is largely been discarded as better rapid prototyping techniques have become available.
This video highlights an older LOM technique using cutters
B2.2.5.2 | Stereolithography
B2.2.5.2 | Stereolithography
Stereolithography (SLA) (also known as optical fabrication, photo-solidification, solid free-form fabrication and solid imaging) is an additive manufacturing (or “3D printing”) technology used for producing models, prototypes, patterns and production parts.
SLA machines don’t extrude material onto a surface but instead start with an excess of liquid plastic, some of which is cured, or hardened by a laser to form a solid object.
SLA machines have four main parts:
A tank that can be filled with liquid plastic - photopolymer.
A perforated platform that is lowered into the tank.
An ultraviolet (UV) laser.
A computer to control the process.
B2.2.5.3 | Fused deposition modelling (FDM)
B2.2.5.3 | Fused deposition modelling (FDM)
Fused deposition modelling (FDM) works on an “additive” principle by laying down material in layers. A plastic filament or metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle that can turn the flow on and off. The nozzle is heated to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical directions by a numerically controlled mechanism, directly controlled by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software package.
The nozzle is heated when extruding plastic and metals and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical directions. New applications are being found for this type of rapid prototyping, including building houses out of concrete.
B2.2.5.4 | Selective laser sintering (SLS)
B2.2.5.4 | Selective laser sintering (SLS)
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing technique that uses a high-power laser (for example, a carbon dioxide laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal (direct metal laser sintering), ceramic or glass powders into a mass that has a desired 3D shape. Objects printed with SLS are most commonly made out of plastic powders, such as nylon, which are automatically dispersed in a thin layer on top of the build platform. A laser, which is controlled by a computer reading the CAD model tells the machine what to ‘print’. This traces a cross-section of the model into the powder, which then fuses together to form the model. SLS models can be extremely intricate and detailed, however, the machines and powders themselves can be very expensive.
SLS can produce highly detailed and complex models as well as full functional parts. This type of detail in not possible with most of the other forms of 3D printers
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