Environment

Sunil Santoni-de-Reddy

December 2006

Philadelphia: City of Brotherly Love

Philadelphia was officially founded on October 27, 1682 by William Penn as a city “which Penn envisioned as a haven for his fellow Quakers to enjoy freedom of worship and the chance to govern themselves” (Gale). Taken from the 2000 Census, Philadelphia’s total human population was 1,517,550 persons, and, with a Pennsylvania state population of 12,281,054, Philadelphia is home to about 12.4% of the state’s residents (U.S. Census). With a human population of just under 1.6 million, Philadelphia ranks fifth in the nation’s largest cities and is the second-largest city on the East Coast (Philadelphia Convention). The total land area of Philadelphia is 135.1 square miles (349.9 square kilometers). The water area of the city is 7.6 square miles (19.6 square kilometers) which is 5.29% of the total Philadelphia area (Wikimedia). The human population density within the city’s official limits is 11,232.8 people per square mile (4,337.1 people/square kilometer).

Politically speaking, Philadelphia is a democratically oriented city. Democratic Mayor John F. Street was elected into office in 2000 and was reelected in 2004—his term in office concludes in January 2008 (Gale). Interestingly, since 1952 Philadelphia’s mayors have all been Democrats. An overwhelming majority of the city’s residents identify as Democrats. From the 2004 Voter Registration information, 74.9% of Philadelphians registered as Democrats, 16.5% registered with the Republican Party, and 8.6% registered with some other political party (Wikimedia).

Philadelphia is geographically located at 40.01˚N (latitude) and 75.13˚W (longitude) on the southeastern border of Pennsylvania (Helders). The city’s elevation ranges from 5 to 431 feet above sea level and is situated at the junction point of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. With the Appalachian Mountains to the west and the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the city’s climate remains fairly moderate; temperatures generally do not soar or dip down to either of the hot or cold extremes. Philadelphia’s biome is the Temperate Deciduous Forest; this means that Philadelphians experience all four seasons during the year. The average temperature of Philadelphia in the month of January is 32˚F while the average temperature in August is 75.3˚F; the annual average temperature is 53.6˚F (Gale).

The city of Philadelphia has a temperate continental climate (Encyclopedia Britannica). Continental climates are “characteristic of the interior of a landmass of continental size, marked by large annual, daily, and day-to-day temperature ranges, low relative humidity, and a moderate or small irregular rainfall” (Answers Corporation). The range of annual temperatures reached in the city means that residents experience fairly warm summers and colder winters.

Philadelphia’s annual winds come predominantly from the west (Encyclopedia Britannica). Seasonally, the dominant wind direction in the summer and winter months is southwesterly and northwesterly, respectively (Cadman). A rain shadow, also called a precipitation shadow, is defined as the dry area of land on the leeward side—the side downwind—of a mountain range (Wikimedia). Philadelphia sits in the Coastal Plain on the southeastern edge of the Piedmont region. “The Piedmont is an area of foothills that is located between the flat Coastal Plain and the great Appalachian mountain system to the west” (Microsoft (a)). This mountain system is responsible for moderating much of Philadelphia’s climate (About). Since winds come from the west, rain shadows exist east of the Appalachian mountains; thus, Philadelphia sits on the leeward side of the range.

As already stated, the Appalachian Mountains west of Philadelphia contribute to the moderation of temperatures. Additionally, the city does not suffer extreme heat or cold due to the presence of the Atlantic Ocean on the east; ocean air helps balance the temperatures during the summer and winter months (Gale). However, although the Atlantic Ocean has some effect on Philadelphia’s climate, it is minimal since the dominant westerly winds of the region “sweep weather systems eastward” (Microsoft (b)). The western boundary of the city is adjacent to the Schuylkill River which enters the region from the north. In South Philadelphia the Schuylkill River joins the Delaware River (About). The existence of the mountains and three bodies of water in close proximity to the city explains why average temperatures throughout the year do not generally soar higher than 80 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer or dip down lower than thirty degrees Fahrenheit during the winter.

According to the 2000 Census, the per capita income in Philadelphia was $16,509 in 1999. In the same year, there were 590,071 households and the median household income was $30,746. In 1999 approximately 22.9% of the city’s population could be economically classified as impoverished. The city’s racial demographics are as follows: 45% White, 43.2% Black or African American, 8.5% Hispanic or Latino, 7% classified as “other” or multiracial, 4.5% Asian, and 0.3% American Indian/Alaska Native (U.S. Census). Philadelphia has the second-largest Irish, Italian and Jamaican populations in the United States and the third- and fourth-largest Puerto Rican and African American populations, respectively (Wikimedia).

Most of Philadelphia’s precipitation comes in the form of rain and snow. The average annual precipitation of rain is 45.7 inches and the average annual precipitation of snow is 20.5 inches (Gale). Philadelphia water comes from the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers; both are surface water sources. “Each river contributes approximately one-half of the city’s overall supply” (Philadelphia Department of Water (a), 3). Philadelphia is located in the Delaware River Watershed. Conveniently, the Delaware River serves as the city’s border with New Jersey, and the Schuylkill River cuts through West Philadelphia. Thus, the city’s water sources are local (6).

There are three drinking water treatment plants serving Philadelphia. The Baxter Water Treatment Plant’s source is the Delaware River. This plant treats approximately 200 million gallons of water daily and provides water to 60% of the city. The Belmont Water Treatment Plant and the Queen Lane Treatment Plant treat 40 and 70 million gallons of water each day, respectively, from the Schuylkill River and serve 40% of the city’s population (Philadelphia Department of Water (b), par. 1-5). After collecting and processing water from the city’s two rivers, Philadelphia’s three water treatment plants distribute water over a 130 square mile area through 3,300 miles of water mains to roughly 1.5 million city residents (par. 12). Water is stored in 18 reservoirs and 5 water storage tanks in the city (par. 16).

Philadelphia has more than 2,960 miles of sewers; this system could span the entire United States from East to West. The sewers collect both sanitary waste and minimal stormwater runoff that get transported to one of three Philadelphia water pollution control plants. There are also separate stormwater sewers that divert water overflows to local streams and rivers. Combined, the Northeast, Southeast, and Southwest Philadelphia Wastewater Treatment Plants clean an average of 471 million gallons of wastewater each day and discharge this amount into the Delaware River (par. 28-31). Some of the city’s wastewater also gets sent to a biosolids recycling facility that “processes the biosolids resulting from wastewater treatment for a variety of environmentally beneficial uses including compost for gardening and horticulture, revegtation of strip mines, fertilizer for farmlands, and restoration of City parks and play fields” (par. 47). Spanning 73 acres, this facility is the largest biosolids recycling facility in the country.

According to the Philadelphia Pollution Scorecard, in 2003 the city made the list of the dirtiest 10% of counties in the United States with respect to person-days that exceeded the national air quality standard for ozone. The city also placed in the ninetieth percentile of the dirtiest/worst counties in the U.S. because if the high emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter (includes dust, soot, smoke), sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds. Philadelphia County ranked in the seventieth percentile for its poor air quality index. Based on reports from 2003, Philadelphia was classified as a “nonattainment area” since the city continuously failed to meet the national ambient air quality standards as a result of the high concentrations of ozone pollution (Green Media).

The City government, using the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI), approximated the city’s 1999 overall air quality as “good” 82% of the year, “moderate” 16% of the year, and “unhealthful” 2% of the year. The 1999 Air Quality Report of Philadelphia showed that the city improved with respect to air quality and concentration of emissions from the late 1970s. The recorded “unhealthful” and “moderate” days in the city decreased while the “good” number of days increased. Ground ozone, Philadelphia’s highest concentrated pollutant, was also regulated better in the city based on the findings of this report. In 1988 there were 19 days exceeding the 1-hour ozone standard while in 1999 this number dropped to only 1 day. Improvements of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and lead levels have also been made in Philadelphia, according to the report (Philadelphia Department of Water (a)).

With a 2002 estimated emission of 902,416 pounds, the county of Philadelphia falls in the seventieth to eightieth percentile nationally with respect to the total environmental releases of toxic chemical waste. This release includes emissions by air, water, and land (Green Media). In Philadelphia, and in a larger global sense, “motor vehicle exhaust accounts for one-third to one-half of all ozone forming pollution generated by humans” (Philadelphia Department, 16). Generally, 75% of carbon monoxide pollution comes from mobile sources which include motor vehicles and other vessels such as airplanes and ships. About 83% of Philadelphia County’s air pollutants come from mobile sources (Green Media). Motivated by a heightened environmental consciousness as well as by a desire to develop economically, “Philadelphia officials are taking a number of concrete steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the city” (Shaffer, par. 13). A recently created Sustainability Working Group has the objective of making Philadelphia a more environmentally friendly city. With a greater public campaign to promote public transportation the city hopes to reduce air pollution.

Additionally, “the Cities for Climate Protection Program […] commits Philadelphia to cutting greenhouse gases by 7 percent from 1990 levels” (Shaffer, par. 26). PECO, Philadelphia’s distributor of electric and natural gas power, also plans on mitigating the greenhouse gases by up to 8%: in 2004 the company began offering windpower services to Philadelphia residents and began filling their vehicles with biodiesel fuel (Shaffer, par. 59).

Native plants are important in Philadelphia because they provide “food, shelter and breeding sites for animals that have used the natural areas of Philadelphia for millennia” (Fairmount Park Commission, 2). There are many native trees, shrubs, and flowers in Philadelphia, some of which include species of maples, birches, oaks, dogwoods, asters, goldenrods, ferns, and violets. Philadelphia wildlife includes raccoons, squirrels, rats, opossums, snakes, and bats. (Fairmount).

Philadelphia is unique because not only is it in itself a major U.S. city, but it is situated only two hours away from each of New York City and Washington, D.C., two other major U.S. cities. In addition to being the only city besides Boston to poses a multi-modal transit system with buses, subways, high speed rails, trackless trolleys, and regional rails, Philadelphia is also unique because it was the first U.S. city to have used steam power in 1801 to transfer water from a nearby river (the Schuylkill) to a waterworks plant. Ultimately, the use of steam power was traded for water power—and later dams and turbines—but the use of steam was impressive at the time because it was thought to be very “novel” and “conscientious” (Brown, 93). Philadelphia was also “the first major American city to press vigorously for an abundant supply of wholesome water for its citizens” (U.S. Department, 1), and did this by creating the Philadelphia Waterworks to process and distribute the water supply to the city’s citizens. The Waterworks is no longer in use but has been renovated and made a historic landmark of Philadelphia.

One environmental issue in Philadelphia concerns water quality. As we have read and discussed throughout the semester, approximately “three quarters of the United States’ population is urban—about 215 million people. By 2030, that will increase to 280 million—about 85% of the population” (Moyers, par. 18). Increased economic development in urban areas contributes to subsequent population growth in cities (Botkin, 4). Thus, with greater numbers living in the city, “if we are interested in helping people live in better environments, we must focus on urban environments” (5). Clearly, then, one of the city’s concerns is to ensure safe water treatment and distribution to serve the increasing numbers of subscribers within Philadelphia. Since water is “a special commodity for the sustaining of life, the preservation of health, and the supporting of industrial activity” (Seidenstat et al., 459), the quality of water is of prime importance.

Water is often considered a universal solvent, and “as rain falls through the atmosphere, flows over and through the earth’s surface, it is constantly dissolving material,” and is therefore not “pure” when it reaches Philadelphia waterways (Gray, 43). When water hits the ground it can either 1) be absorbed and evaporated back into the atmosphere, 2) hit impervious surfaces and become surface runoff that enters into streams and lakes, or 3) become groundwater (45). Water supplies come from the later two sources.

According to an organization known as the Schuylkill Action Network, “while dissolved oxygen has increased due largely to the Clean Water Act, a variety of land activities have degraded the streams in the [Schuylkill] watershed. Major contributors include agricultural practices, storm water runoff, sewage overflows, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), and abandoned mine drainage” (Hesson). The Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) has focused on one of these concerns: how to treat overflow from the sewer system after heavy rainfalls, which, given the city’s average annual precipitation, occur about 66 times each year. Peak precipitation periods in Philadelphia are problematic because in areas with impervious surfaces peak runoff goes hand in hand with increased rainfall (Burns et al., 274). Overflow from runoff gets diverted to waterways instead of treatment plants. It is important to note the following:

90% of all rain that falls on land developed in the conventional manner runs off into

nearby streams. This excessive runoff is loaded with pollution from roofs, lawns, and

parking lots and can flow into our drinking water sources. This runoff also overloads

streams causing flooding, stream bank erosion, and property damage (Clean Water

Action, par. 2).

Removing pollutants before they contaminate Philadelphia waterways is a large environmental concern.

Contamination from overflows caused by excess stormwater is only one concern. Pollution from industrial waste is also a consideration of the PWD. The Department has therefore taken measures to make Philadelphia drinking water “top quality,” and the city has “consistently performed better than all drinking water standards developed by the EPA to protect public health” (Philadelphia Water Department (a), 2), as stated in the 2005 Water Quality Report. However, although much of the city’s water is safeguarded, a concern related to lead contamination also exists throughout the city. Many of the Philadelphia residences are historic buildings in which are lead service lines, valves, and faucets. Since “water is corrosive and encourages the dissolving of lead from these materials” (5), contamination of people’s tap water is a reality for many in the city.

When questioning the causes for these water concerns, it is necessary to consider biogeophysical but also human factors. Considering the former, as Richard Haeuber (1999) states: “few alterations of land and natural resources are as profound as human settlement … [that] involves far-reaching long-term changes;” he identifies changes in water quantity and quality as a consequence of human occupation of land (Haeuber, 132). Haeuber’s statement seems appropriate when considering that increases in population lead to an increased demand for clean water but also means greater degradation of the water sources via individual or industrial pollution. Supportive of this, “humans affect Earth’s ecosystems at extraordinary rates through conversion of land and resource consumption, alteration of habitats and species composition, disruption of hydrological processes, and modification of energy flow and nutrient cycles” (Alberti et al., 1169). More city residents means greater demand for clean water.

Additionally, “there is less infiltration of water in urban environments due to the imperviousness of hard surfaces associated with infrastructure (e.g., streets, highways). The drainage infrastructure in urban areas (pipes and ditches) results in rainfall reaching a stream more quickly than it would in rural landscape” (Dooling, 10). The alteration of the habitat via increased impervious surfaces means more water contamination due to runoff and the disruption of the water cycle since groundwater recharge is inhibited (Burns, 267).

The last water-related issue plaguing Philadelphia is lead contamination of the water distribution system. Lead, which is a toxic element, mostly gets leaked into water sources from old piping systems. Before 1964 most companies used lead for service pipe connections because of its malleability which meant a reduced possibility for fracturing (Gray, 241). Currently there are about 600,000 Philadelphia housing units, 95% of which were built before 1978 and 51% built before 1939. Due to the time period in which the houses were built, it was not uncommon for lead piping to be used nor was it uncommon for walls to be coated with lead-based paint (Bryant, 288). Lead levels in water also increase when copper piping is used to repair a busted lead pipe—electrochemical corrosion of the original piping results with the presence of the copper, and thus the water gets contaminated with the toxic element (Gray, 249).

Harm from lead exposure is defined by how long one was exposed, how often one was exposed, and the concentration of lead one was exposed to. Young children are the greatest concern with respect to lead exposure: “numerous studies have found an inverse relation between blood levels and IQ […] for every increase in blood levels of 10 mcg/dl there is a lowering of IQ in children ranging from approximately 2.6-7 points” (Bryant, 288). Surprisingly, “lead in drinking water contributes to as much as 20% of total lead exposure in U.S. children,” and is also speculated as a cause for childhood “antisocial and delinquent behavior” (292). One study conducted in 292 of 298 Philadelphia public schools (58% were elementary schools) found that 42.5% of tested buildings had an acceptable range of lead concentrations in the water (20 ppb or less), but shockingly 28.7% had a mean concentration of 20-50 ppb, 11.6% had a mean of 50-100ppb, and 17.1% had a mean concentration exceeding 100 ppb. These results speak for themselves; lead contamination of Philadelphia water is a major concern.

To solve the water problems of Philadelphia I believe that first and foremost citizens of the city must collectively educate themselves about the issues. As Alberti et al. (2003) suggest, “effective integration of humans into ecological theory […] requires effective team building, interdisciplinary training, and a new dialog between science and policymaking” (Alberti et al., 1177). These community members together represent the “experiential knowledge of a wide cross-section of stakeholders” that Haeuber advocates as part of growth management (Haeuber, 139). Spokespeople from many different groups in the community should be involved in the discussion about water and water quality measures. All angles of the issue need to be discussed: water availability affects the production of goods and functioning of services within the city, lead poisoning is a reality for many school-aged children, environmentalists can offer information about how to deal with stormwater runoff, architects and engineers can discuss how to repair or replace water pipes, and representatives from the treatment plants can input comments about the process of cleaning and distributing water effectively.

Dooling and Greve (2006) believe that water is an “invisible infrastructure” which makes it “difficult for city dwellers to understand the connection among ecological, social, and built components of a city. Only when the drought results in water shortage, restricting water use and increasing people’s water bills, does the relationship between ecology of water, the built environment supporting water delivery and treatment, and the social practices of water coalesce in an urgent manner” (Dooling & Greve, 10-11). Water is important to societies on many levels and therefore the resource must be considered to a greater extent by the larger public; a greater environmental consciousness is called for before measures can be taken to improve the water quality problems in Philadelphia. This relates to Robert Costanza’s (2001) discussion of a shared vision between community members that would raise consciousness, work through problems, and create resolutions that would benefit everyone in the community (Costanza, 460). All three of the values he discusses can be preserved: the individual need for ample quality water is usually a given, the community good can be considered through the need for water for landscaping, for example, and sustainability can be considered since without quality water no living thing would be able to survive and therefore a whole systems perspective can be adopted to realize the need for conservation or preservation measures (462-3).

People would be more conscious about their personal use of water and not disrespect water sources (for example not littering in waterways, not contaminating sewers with chemicals used to wash a car, etc.) if they understood the concept of the ecological footprint. If people learned that “the environmental stress caused by cities is far greater than the actual physical borders of the city” (Light, 46), people would perhaps see that conserving water and thereby reducing their footprints slightly would result in more clean water to go around. With more clean water available, there would be a lesser need to treat vaster quantities of water in a short period of time, and this translates into lower treatment costs for the plants and for taxpayers. Additionally, any resource demand in cities is a demand shared by neighbors. Everyone shares the resource of water and so everyone should share the responsibility to maintain and protect its quality (52).

Andrew Light (2003) calls for an enhanced ecological citizenship in cities which would promote greater common interests among groups of residents. Light mentions how groups of people in New York formed the Bronx River Alliance under the City of New York Parks and Recreation Department to help clean up the waterway and brainstorm methods for maintaining its quality. I believe the same can be done in Philadelphia. Groups of people from all walks of life and from all areas of the city can join forces in a collaborative effort to clean up the Schuylkill River, for example. Groups such as these can notify people about the dangers of possible lead contamination in their home water systems, and they can also help raise consciousness about conserving water on an individual basis which would help lessen the need for increased levels of treatment to accommodate the masses.

One possible solution to the lead contamination problem involves flushing. Flushing, or allowing water to run for a brief period of time, was shown in the school experiment to be successful at reducing the amount of lead that children were exposed to. The problems with this solution is that flushing the interior plumbing of a large building would require a lot of time and money in addition to wasting valuable water (Bryant, 293). I believe that replacing old lead pipes is a more feasible solution although I also believe this would be costly. Instead of replacing the pipes, if when busted they are able to be patched with copper, I wonder if it would be sufficient to line the old pipes with plastic or some other inexpensive material that would inhibit corrosion and therefore lead contamination. If this is possible then the cost would be minimized since the entire piping system would not have to be replaced.

In an effort to reduce the impact of stormwater runoff and overflow of the sewers, I believe that perhaps more green spaces in Philadelphia would help. As Moyers (2001) points out, city watersheds “are covered with buildings and paved areas that water can’t penetrate. Urban forests, wetlands, and streamside vegetation help to restore some of the natural balance by buffering stormwater runoff, absorbing pollutants, and recharging groundwater reservoirs” (Moyers, par. 12). Thus, perhaps an initiative can be introduced in Philadelphia to plant more greenery near waterways or near sewers and drainage systems. Perhaps impervious surfaces such as roofs can be covered with plant life to absorb precipitation. I envision a house that is sheltered by a tree, for example, that would collect the falling rain and minimize the runoff that would occur otherwise. I feel this is a somewhat misguided suggestion because it seems unrealistic to assume people would want to live under trees which would also restrict how much light a house gets, among other things. I also wonder if urban planners can use more porous materials when constructing roads, and building structures.

I think that residents can also help on an individual level by collecting the water that runs off of their roofs and through their gutters in plastic bins or other containers. The water that collects in these bins can be used to water indoor and/or outdoor plants or could be used to wash the car, for another example, thereby not wasting clean water from the tap. I think this strategy would help somewhat although I am not sure if during the winter months something similar could be applied since water in its solid form is more difficult to utilize than in its liquid form. I do not see many challenges to this solution since it is something easy that anyone could do.

Ultimately, I believe that the strategies included above enhance public participation in maintaining a healthy urban environment and raise greater consciousness. Through forming groups with others and having discussions, collective values are fostered or encouraged and will serve as the impetus for change. The strategies suggest that human and non-human forces react as one on the environment and that attention must be paid to both in order to protect the environment. Biogeophysical factors must be considered but people must also understand how they use the environment to their advantage and what the consequences are for the land itself as a result. Whereas often policy related to the environment goes above the heads of the public or denies public input, residents of the city can be more involved with urban ecological measures simply by changing lifestyle habits or engaging in discussions about their personal, community, and global values and expectations for the land they inhabit.

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