Exotic Journeys: A Tourist's Guide to Philosophy
brought to you by Ron Yezzi
Emeritus Professor of Philosophy
Minnesota State University, Mankato
© Copyright 1986, 1994, 2015, 2020 by Ron Yezzi
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(Author's Note: The account below, with slight modifications, is taken from Ron Yezzi, Philosophical Problems: The Good Life (Mankato: G. Bruno & Co., 1994), pp. 135-138.)
Positive Answer:
Method of Authority
According to the method of authority, some person, group, institution, or sacred text establishes what the good life is. The government, a church, parents, a peer group, one's teachers, a biblical text, or a constitution may well be the authority to be relied upon. What particularly characterizes this method is (1) reliance upon an external source, that is, one outside the individual, for moral direction and (2) endowment of this external source with a special status deserving respect or allegiance.
We can say, safely enough, that most people throughout most of history rely upon the method of authority to distinguish right from wrong. This fact is not surprising since so many sources of authority exist to influence us. We cannot easily cast off one without coming under the influence of another. So, for example, a child rebels against parental authority frequently only to become bound to the value structure of the peer group. The method of authority also is attractive because it simplifies the process of arriving at moral judgments. Generally it is much easier to rely upon an authority than to seek out solutions to moral problems for ourselves.
In the case of long-established, institutionalized authority, success in maintaining strong allegiance over a long period of time can be taken as evidence of adequacy. For example, it can be argued that the United States Constitution should continue to state the morally acceptable legal structure of U.S. society, because it has been proven to work so well over a period of nearly two hundred years. We are more likely to direct our lives rightly if we rely on established, institutionalized authority that has proven itself over time, rather than if we rely on our own judgments that are based upon much more limited experience over much shorter periods of time. Especially in the case of young people, little justification exists for challenging established authority.
Controversies: Some Objections and Possible Replies
(Note About Objections and Possible Replies: You should look upon the objections and possible replies as opportunities for further thought rather than as definitive statements. Holders of the original position are not likely to be overwhelmed by the objections; and critics of the original position are not likely to be convinced by the possible replies. These objections and possible replies accomplish a proper goal if they push you to think more deeply about an issue, leading you to seek more clarity and justification in drawing your own conclusions.)
(1) Disagreements, Incorrect Judgments, and Authority
The fact that moral rules are laid down by some “authority” is no guarantee of their correctness. In the past, judgments passed down by some authority, such as a church or a government, have come to be regarded as incorrect. Does anyone, for example, accept the divine right of kings as a correct principle of government, because it was once asserted by well-established, institutionalized authority? Moreover, we should be well aware that disagreements exist among supposed authorities—as shown, for example, by disagreements about sacred texts such as The Old and New Testaments, The Koran, The Upanishads, and The Book of Mormon.
A Possible Reply: The dictates of authority are neither infallible nor beyond disagreement; but they are more reliable as guides to action for the great majority of people than any others arrived at through some other method.
(2) The Inflexibility of Authority
Well-established, institutionalized authority nearly always proves to be inflexible in the presence of changed circumstances. Particularly in contemporary life, where circumstances change rapidly, such authority holds on to, and tries to preserve, the past at the expense of the innovation needed to deal with current problems. New Deal politics, Republican conservatism, the arms race, religious fundamentalism, old-fashioned parents, marijuana laws, monogamy, sexual taboos, college curricula, school board decisions, corporate management, and The American Dream provide plenty of potential examples of authoritative inflexibility.
A Possible Reply: The best types of institutionalized authority are flexible enough to prove themselves over time; otherwise they do not survive. That is why the United States Constitution, constantly but carefully amended and reinterpreted, is still the fundamental legal document of the United States after two hundred years.
We also need to be careful about burying a well-established, institutionalized authority too soon. Rapidly changing circumstances and the passions of the moment may blind us to the wisdom, based upon long and varied experience, that underlies the dictates of some particular authority.
(3) Directing One's Own Life
No person should forfeit the right of decision to an authority, since that person is the one who must live by, and suffer the consequences of, any decisions made. To forfeit such a right denies the fundamental autonomy each person possesses as a human being and leads to a life directed by the experience of others.
A Possible Reply: We should not make the mistake of thinking that we cannot learn anything from other persons, a group, or an institution, lest we forfeit the opportunity to benefit from a wisdom greater than our own. The overwhelming majority of people need the guidance of authority; without it, they, and consequently society as a whole, experiences chaos. The overwhelming majority of people are simply incapable of deciding fundamental questions about the direction of life for themselves.
(4) Authority As a Pseudo-Method
No matter how impressive it might seem, the method of authority does not really exist. First, the authority itself cannot formulate judgments about right and wrong using the method of authority. Ultimately, there must be some appeal to another method. For example, governmental authority, sooner or later, resolves itself into some person or group deciding issues of right and wrong through another method—whether it be a moral sense and instinct, science, intuition, faith, expediency, or whatever. Secondly, every person must choose whether or not to accept an authority. In making that personal choice, we see that no authority directs judgments of right and wrong, because the personal choice itself ultimately legitimizes the authority. For example, no one lives by the authority of The Bible without first personally choosing to accept the authority of The Bible.
A Possible Reply: This objection makes a good point; but it is misleading. Use of some other method as the ultimate origin of authority and the element of personal choice involved cannot hide the fact that the overwhelming majority of people rely on authority rather than extensive use of some other method in directing their lives.
Thought Excursions
4.50 To what extent is your own view of the good life dependent upon the method of authority? Do you think that your view is primarily an expression of your autonomous self or is it more dependent upon authoritative influences such as your parents, your peers, contemporary community standards, etc.? Do you think that reading about ethics on this website increases or decreases your reliance upon the method of authority?
4.501 Suppose that you decided to reject entirely the method of authority in arriving at your conception of the good life. How would you then proceed? Is it difficult to cast off reliance upon authority entirely?
4.51 Can you list any examples of authoritative inflexibility in the presence of changed circumstances within say, contemporary society? Be as specific as possible and justify inclusion of each example. If you cannot come up with examples, does this show that authority need not be inflexible?
4.52 Evaluate the various objections to the method of authority mentioned here. Be sure to consider the possible reply to each objection, in making your evaluation. Which is the strongest objection? The weakest? Would you offer other objections besides those mentioned text? If so, what are they? What is your general evaluation of the method of authority?