Kenneth P. Langer
In this paper, I want to reflect on the possibility that some of the germinal ideas for the development of the principle of universalism began during the Reformation. I do not mean to suggest that Martin Luther or any others in the initial Reform movement believed in the universal forgiveness of sins or dismissed the damnation of sinful souls. Rather, I am suggesting that the attitude of questioning the traditions and teachings of the Catholic Church–especially if those practices were considered to not be rooted in scripture–may have opened the door to the possibility of universalist thinking. Though some universalist thought may reach as far back into history as Origen, I am considering the idea that the Reformation may have greatly pushed open the philosophical barn door.
I wanted to write on this topic because I am a Unitarian Universalist seminary student and I am interested in the history of the denomination. While much has been written about the history of Unitarianism (including in our textbooks) little has been said about the history of Universalism. I used the books assigned in class as well as several other sources to try and put together a little of that history up to the time frame covered in class..
As we have studied in the course this semester, Luther was probably influenced by Erasmus–particularly through his work In Praise of Folly. In this work, Erasmus raises the specter of doubt about the sanctity and value of the religious authorities of the time. “And next these come those that commonly call themselves the religious and monks, most false in both titles, when both a great part of them are farthest from religion, and no men swarm thicker in all places than themselves.” Erasmus questions the religious authority of the priesthood and continues this succession of doubt right up to the Pope when he concludes, “All this amounts to no less than that all mortal men are fools, even the righteous and godly as well as sinners.”
Erasmus’ preference to refer to the original text in the original language was a great influence to Luther who studied Erasmus’ writings. Luther was inspired to understand the original teachings of the scriptures–an idea promoted by Christian Humanists such as Erasmus. “The linguistic tools and biblical sources that helped Luther, Melanchthon, and the other Wittenberg theologians argue for the doctrine of justification were available because of humanism.” Luther and other leaders of the Reformation stressed that Christian truth and the way to live a Christian life was not to be found in the words of its leaders but through a careful study of the Bible. “The leaders of the Reformation seem slightly to have considered that the principles of reform which they had set up, brought into discredit not only the authority of the Pontiff, but also all human authority whatever in matters of religion.”
As I have previously stated, the idea of universal salvation was not put forth in Luther’s teachings but there is some speculation as to whether or not he did not completely dismiss the idea. German researcher Florian Berndt writes, “It seems to me a bit too far flung to consider Martin Luther a closet Universalist, but he seems to have had the hope of post mortem conversion, leaving it open to the Creator when and to whom He would impart the saving faith of Christ.”
After Luther’s call for change, several theologians who agreed with some of his ideas decided to take matters further in their hermeneutics creating new sects that branched off from Lutheranism. “When the principles of the Reformation spread throughout Germany, there arose a considerable number of different sects, some distinguished by one article of faith, and some by another.” The group of people most of concern in this inquiry is the Anabaptists. “Many of the Anabaptists were Universalists. One way we know this is because Article XVII of the Lutheran Augsburg Confession of Faith (1530) says that “They condemn the Anabaptists, who think that there will be an end to the punishments of condemned men and devils.” These groups were spurred on by Luther’s push to break from what he considered false traditions of the church and believed that his obstinance toward Catholicism justified their own breaks from his teachings. “With the same arguments by which Luther and his followers justified themselves in dissenting from the Catholic Church, did the Anabaptists assert the privilege of differing from them.”
Groups often put under the term Anabaptist umbrella included the Quakers and the Mennonites. From their inception, the Anabaptists set themselves apart from Catholicism but also from mainstream Lutheranism as well. Lindberg states, “The Anabaptists turned to local congregations of voluntary members who regarded themselves as altogether set apart from the state.” Calvin had once claimed that the elect were chosen by God and were saved by him. Many of the Anabaptist groups expanded that concept by claiming that all who believed as they did were the elect. The Mennonites, for example, created a “a covenanted community of families that claimed to be the church itself, outside of which there is no salvation.”
Extension of that principle into the whole of humanity found early sparks in the Moravians and the Quakers. The Moravians, inspired by the death of Jan Hus, developed in what is now the Czech Republic. One of their bishops who would later become a missionary to America, Peter Böhler, embraced a more universalist conception of salvation. “Böhler, as witnessed by George Whitefield in a letter to John Wesley, apparently confessed his beliefs in a universal redemption.” Böhler may have been inspired by his mentor Nicolaus Zinzendorf whose conviction about universal salvation was less expressed but “in the third discourse of Zinzendorf’s Sixteen Discourses on the Redemption of Man by the Death of Christ, Zinzendorf explicitly says that by the name of Jesus all ‘can and shall obtain life and salvation’.
Perhaps early universalism gained its greatest foothold in England with the presence of groups such as the Quakers. The Quakers were another Anabaptist formation founded by George Fox who spoke of an inner light within each individual soul. “George Fox and his followers claimed that the measure of divine life, nesting, as it were, within the life of each man, was universal, was before churches and scriptures, and had always led mankind”.
This has been an attempt to catalog the idea of universalism up through the time frame covered in this section of the class. Again, the idea was not to prove that Universalism began with the Reformation itself or with the writings of Erasmus and Martin Luther but to show that the successful campaign against the Catholic church led by the Reformation paved the way for those who may have been silent before to come forth. This was especially true for those groups who pushed the limits of the Reformation even further–the Radical Reformers or the Anabaptists. The ability to openly question the traditions and teachings of the Catholic church allowed different interpretations of the Bible and led to the formation of breakaway societies. One of the questioned doctrines was the principle of punishment for sins after death. This single branch of dissident is relevant to me because of my identification as a Unitarian Universalist.
Notes
Ballou, Hosea. Ancient History of Universalism.
Erasmus, Desiderius. In Praise Of Folly. Lines 150-152 of the version given in class.
Erasmus. In Praise Of Folly. Project Gutenberg edition.
Flamme, Brian. “Luther and Erasmus,” an article from Luther Reformation.org.
https://lutheranreformation.org/theology/luther-and-erasmus/
Whittemore, Thomas.The Modern History of Universalism. First published by the author in 1830. Ebook published by Hardpress.net, 2017. Pg. 5.
Berndt. Florian. “Was Martin Luther a Closet Universalist?” An article at Tentmaker.org. https://tentmaker.org/articles/martin_luther_universalist.html
Whittemore, pg. 5.
“The History of Universalism, Part Two” from the Christian Universalist Association website. https://christianuniversalist.org/resources/articles/history-of-universalism-part-2/
Whittemore, pg. 19.
Lindberg, Carter. The European Reformations. Kindle edition, location 4614.
Lindberg. Location 5085.
From “Peter Böhler (1712-1775) in MercyUpon All.org. http://www.mercyuponall.org/2018/12/05/peter-bohler-1712-1775/
From Nicolaus Zizendorf in MercyUponAll.org. http://www.mercyuponall.org/2019/08/06/nicolaus-zinzendorf-by-this-his-name-all-can-and-shall-obtain-life-and-salvation/
Richardson, Dorothy. The Quakers Past and Present. New York: Dodge Publishing Co., 1914. Project Gutenberg ebook, paragraph 11.