Lesson 2 - Sign Language Phonology

Phonology generally refers to the sound system of a language. One might consider the idea of sign language phonology as being strange, considering that it isn't a spoken language. However, the term phonology can be used to describe the smallest units of a language and is therefore still applicable to sign language. These units are meaningless, and therefore need to be combined with other units in order to create meaning.

Just like the sounds of spoken language involve the use of articulators (such as the teeth and lips), sign language also involves articulators, although in this case, the articulators are the hands (active articulators) and the arms and face (passive articulators). Sounds can be described according to the place of articulation, manner of articulation and whether or not there is voicing. Similarly, hands or signs have shape, location and movement. Where spoken languages draw selectively from a range of sounds, sign languages draw selectively from a range of hand configurations and locations.

William Stokoe was the first linguist to study sign language as a proper language. He devised a system to describe signs and the parts that make up the signs, also called parameters. This was called the Stokoe System. Stokoe labelled the parameters as follows: the Tabula (location), the Designator (handshape) and the Signator (movement). If just one of these parameters change, the whole meaning of a word can change as well. For example, consider the American Sign Language signs for PLEASE and SORRY. Both of them involve a circular motion with the dominant hand (Signator or movement) and the chest is where the sign is performed (Tabula or location). SORRY makes use of a closed fist or an A-shape, whereas PLEASE involves a flat hand or a B-shape. The two signs therefore differ in terms of the Designator or handshape.

PLEASE and SORRY are examples of minimal pairs. Minimal pairs are a set of two words or phrases that differ by only one phonological element (all other phonological elements need to be identical). In sign language, these phonological elements are the parameters such as handshape. In spoken languages, these phonological elements are phonemes, which are abstract representations of a sound, such as /b/ or /p/. An example of minimal pairs in English would be "pat" and "bat". These two words only differ in terms of the first sound. Minimal pairs are useful in that they allow us to see how phonological elements create meaning.

If you look carefully at signs, you'll notice that with some signs, both hands move, while with others, just the one hand moves. As mentioned in the first lesson, sign languages are rule-governed. One particular set of rules includes the symmetry and dominance conditions. With regards to the symmetry condition, if both hands move in a two-handed sign, both hands will have the same shape and movement. The French Sign Language sign for BROTHER is an example of this. The dominance condition states that in a two-handed sign, if each hand has a different handshape then only the active hand moves while the passive hand serves as a base and does not move. There are several basic handshapes for the passive hand, which are named according to the letter or number they represent. In American Sign Language and South African Sign Language these are: B, A, S, O, C or 1 (sometimes called G). If you consider the American Sign Language sign for WEEK, you'll notice that one hand remains stationary (called the passive hand) and makes use of the B-handshape, while the other hand moves (called the active or dominant hand) and makes use of the 1-handshape. There are some exceptions, however, as some signs don't follow either condition.

One of the main criticisms about the Stokoe System was that it wasn't detailed enough and it only provided room for one designator, one signator and one tabula per sign. A number of signs consist of sequences of handshapes, movements and locations, and therefore could not be adequately represented using the Stokoe System. For example, in American Sign Language the sign for FASCINATING, for example, consists of three segments, not just one. There is the initial C-shape, then as the hands move, the fingers also move. Lastly, the final hand shape is that of a fist, or an A-shape.

Lidell and Johnson came up with the Movement-Hold Model, which addresses the issues posed by Stokoe's system. Each part of the sign is described separately, and the movement itself has its own description. It can either be a Hold (meaning the hand doesn't move), Movement or Altered Hold (which is a shorter hold, typically used before a change in direction). This helps one see how signs are related to words as well as the different parts that a sign is made up of.

This model made use of even more parameters, and as such allowed for greater accuracy when describing signs. These parameters are Contour, Contact, Local Movement, Handshape, Placement, Rotation and Non-manual signal. The Contour refers to the movement of the hand, whereas Contact refers to whether or not the articulators (ie. the hands) are touching. Local Movement involves the movement of the fingers as opposed to the movement of the hand. The Handshape as you might have guessed, refers to the shape of the hand. This is typically described using letters or numbers. The Placement refers to the space in which the sign takes place, while the rotation refers to the way the palm is facing. Lastly, the Non-manual signal refers to the facial expressions and bodily gestures involved in the sign.

The sign BOOK can be described using the Movement-Hold Model as follows:

As with FASCINATING, BOOK has three segments or parts. The first part, Unit 1, consists of an Altered Hold. Both hands have a B-handshape and are touching. The hands are located in front of the torso and the thumb is pointing upwards. Unit 2 involves a Movement. There is neither a location nor an orientation associated with a Movement. Lastly, Unit 3 consists of an Altered Hold and the palms are facing upwards. It is otherwise the same as Unit 1.

The Movement Hold model is actually a closer approximation to the way in which the sounds of spoken language are described. One way of describing sounds is to use three-point descriptions, however this leaves out additional information about sounds. The six-point description incorporates the three-point description but also includes information about the airstream mechanism, whether the sound is oral or nasal, and also (where applicable) whether the airflow over the tongue is central or lateral. For example, /s/ according to the three-point description is a voiceless alveolar fricative. However, when considering the six-point description, /s/ is a pulmonic egressive voiceless alveolar oral central fricative. Definitely more informative, wouldn't you say?

There are several different kinds of non-manual features used. These can be used to imitate the actions they refer to, such as LAUGH in New Zealand Sign Language. They are also used as manner and degree adverbs. For example, in South African Sign Language, stretching the lips as if you were saying 'ee' expresses that something was done with difficulty. Another example is having puffed cheeks to indicate large things or a lot of something. Facial expressions are also part of a sign, such as CRY, and can be used in asking questions. They also can be used to show emotional state, even if this not necessarily part of the sign.