Word (Stem) Formation

I. Derivation

A. Affixation

1. Prefixation

a. English

In (i), re-is a prefixed to a verb to make another verb meaning 'do the verb again.' Remove appears to have specialized in the meaning "take away."

In (ii), en- (alternatively em- before p and b) is prefixed to an adjective to make verb meaning 'cause (someone or something) to be adjective'. Empurple appears to be the only verb that means "become adjective."

In (iii), un- is prefixed to a verb to make another verb meaning 'do the opposite of the verb'. All the verbs except do/redo have an element of covering something with something/attaching something to something. Uncover has a specialized metaphorical reading of 'make a discovery.'

In (iv), un- is prefixed to an adjective to make an adjective meaning 'not adjective'. Uneasy has specialized in the reading referring to being 'uncomfortable in one's mind'; it does not have a possible reading of 'difficult'

b. Maricopa (Southwest American Indian)

In (i) there are four roots: 'uly 'carry' 'or 'put (something) on' nak 'put (something) in liquid' duuly 'hide (something)'

and three prefixes that attach to verb roots to make verbs which affect different kinds of objects, a- 'long object' ch- 'multiple object' t- 'round object'

In (ii) there are six roots: puy 'die' pom 'burn' 'er 'be scared' herher 'be wrinkled' hmaaly 'be white' hpily 'be dirty'

and one prefix, a causative prefix, that is attached to verbs to make a causative verbs.

2. Suffixation

a. English

In (i), -(e)r is suffixed to a verb to make an agentive noun meaning 'doer of the verb'. Flier has an unclear extension in the meaning 'brochure.'

In (ii), -ish is suffixed to a noun to make an adjective meaning 'having the (negative or inappropriate) properties of the noun'. Bookish unexpectedly does not mean 'having the properties of a book', but 'liking books a lot'.

In (iii), -ly is suffixed to an adjective to make an adverb meaning 'in an adjective manner'. It is very productive.

In (iv), -ly is suffixed to a noun to make an adjective meaning 'having the (positive) properties of the noun'. Compare mannish and manly. Godly is an extension--godly does not mean 'like a god', but 'respectful/obedient to god'. This is not a very productive suffix--daughterly is fine, but *sonly is impossible; manly is fine, but *boyly is impossible.

b. Kurdish (Near Eastern)

There are four roots: aaqil 'wise' diz 'robber' garm 'warm' draiž 'long'

-ii is suffixed to a noun or adjective to make a noun meaning 'the property/action associated with noun/adjective'

c. Hanunoo (Philippines)

There are three verb roots: nij 'to push' has 'to touch' puj 'to crush'

Copy the first vowel and the following consonant and insert the copy after the first consonant (or after the second consonant--you can't tell the difference in these data) of the verb to make another verb meaning 'to verb rapidly'

2. Complete

a. Nez Perce (Northwest American Indian)

II. Zero-derivation or Functional Shift: shift the part of spech of a word without changing the form of the word:

dance laugh run buy steal position contact contrast

III. Compounding: two or more existing stems are put together to form a new stem:

blackbird freeway airconditioner mother-in-law

IV. Acronyms: stems formed by taking the initial sounds or letters of the words of a phrase and uniting them into a new combination.

NATO < North Atlantic Treaty Organization

laser < light amplification through the stimulated emission of radiation

radar < radio detection and ranging WSU < Washington State University

V. Back Formation: on the basis of analogy, new stems are formed from apparently complex words.

creation:create::donation:X X=donate revision:revise::television:X X = televise

VI. Blending: combination of parts of two stems

breakfast + lunch = brunch smoke + fog = smog chuckle + snort = chortle

VII. Borrowing: taking foreign words into the language

VIII. Clipping: shortening words

exam < examination dorm < dormitory

taxi, cab < taxi cab < taximeter cabriolet

IX. Coinage: wholly new creation, pooch Kodak google blurb

X. Morphological misanalyis (folk etymology): historically incorrect internal analysis of words introduces new morphemes through the new analysis

-burger (<hamburger < Hamburger steak) and so...cheeseburger/pizzaburger/steakburger/baconburger

-(a)holic (<alcoholic (alcohol + ic)) and so...workaholic/sugarholic