This week, we travel to Rajasthan, in Northern India. Complete with fascinating cities and towns, it’s home to the Taj Mahal, a man-made Wonder of the World. Our lesson this week will uncover some of the magic and mystery surrounding this area, looking at the long history and delving into the cultures and customs of the people. During your session with Sue, you’ll learn much more about the Taj Mahal. Many thanks to Emeritus instructor Mary Burns for this lesson on Rajasthan.

India’s history is comprised of many dynasties, so for this lesson you’ll learn mainly about the Mauryan Empire and those kingdoms that grew out of it in the northern part of the country. The Hindu Gupta dynasty ruled from about 320 CE to 540 CE. The Guptas encouraged literature, music, drama, painting, and sculpture.

Muslim Rule

Muslims began invading India in the 700s. In 1206 they set up a sultanate, or kingdom, centered in Delhi. The greatest of all the Muslim states in India was the Mughal Empire, which defeated the Delhi sultanate in 1526. By the late 1600s it had spread over almost all of India.

British Rule

Meanwhile, in 1498 the Portuguese navigator Vasco de Gama sailed to India. The Dutch, the British, and the French soon challenged Portugal for trade with India. By 1849 Great Britain’s East India Company ruled almost all of India. After a rebellion by Indian soldiers, the government of Britain took direct control of India in 1858.

In 1885 Indians who wanted their own government formed a political party called the Indian National Congress. In 1920 Mahatma Gandhi urged Indians to resist British rule.

Independence

India won full independence in 1947. However, some of its land was set aside to create the Muslim country of Pakistan. Fighting soon broke out between India and Pakistan. After a war in 1971, East Pakistan became the new country of Bangladesh. India and Pakistan continued to fight over Kashmir into the 21st century.

India also faced a growing population and widespread poverty. Despite those problems, India has maintained a democratic government. It also developed nuclear technology and a strong computer industry. In 2004 Manmohan Singh became the first Sikh to serve as India’s prime minister, and in 2007 Pratibha Patil became the first woman president of the country.

As you can see, even this quick sketch of India’s history shows the richness of the people and cultures who have influenced its evolution. Let’s take a closer look now at Rajasthan, and the role it has played in the growth of India (and the world!).

This history of Rajasthan can be traced back some 100,000 years as evidence of early humans along the Banas river have been found. The Indus and post-Indus civilizations (3rd and 2nd millennium BCE) can be found, and pottery fragments from 2700 BCE have been found.

Inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE indicate the area was once under the rule of Ashoka, the last great emperor of the Mauryan dynasty of India. It was also ruled by Bactrian kings in the 2nd century BCE, the Shaka satraps from the 2nd to the 4th century CE, the Gupta dynasty from the early 4th to the late 6th century, the Hephthalites (Humas) in the 6th century, and Harsha (Harshavardhana), a Rajput ruler in the early 7th century.

Several Rajput dynasties arose between the 7th and 11th centuries, including the Gurjara-Pratiharas who kept the Arab invaders of the Sindh area (now SE Pakistan) under control. There would continue to be a variety of clans including the Kachwahas, Bhattis and Rathors who would establish independent kingdoms in the area.

A series of encounters known as the Battles of Taraori, fought near Delhi in 1192 began a new period in Rajasthan’s history. With the victory of Muhammad Ghūrī over a Rajput army, the Rajput power was destroyed and Muslim presence became firmly established in Northern India. Over the following four centuries, there were attempts to subdue the Rajput states of the region. Towards the end of the 16th century, the Mughal emperor Akbar was able to enter an alliance with numerous Rajput ruling houses, arranging marriages with Rajput princesses for himself and his heirs. Mughal-Rajput marriages continued until the early 18th century, which allowed many Rajput states to join the imperial family without military activity. Some Rajput rulers actually served with loyalty in the imperial Mughal forces. Ultimately, Akbar succeeded in grouping Rajput states into the Mughal Empire.

In the 19th century, the British became established in the region, and organized the Rajput states into the Rajputana province. The government of India was represented in Rajputana by a political officer, known as the governor-general. It was during this period that the idea of Indian nationalism was born, with the goal of restoring Hinduism to its pristine purity. There were movements of thought which spread through Rajputana, between holy men (Jain sadhus) and scholars.

After India became independent in 1947, the princely states and chiefships of Rajputana were integrated by stages into a single entity. First grouped into small unions, they were merged with Rajput states to create the Greater Rajasthan in 1949. The new constitution of India was established in 1950 and the state of Rajasthan became an important part of India. The Rajput princes surrendered their political powers to a central government.

In 1956, the States Reorganization Act was implemented and Rajasthan became the shape that it is today. The privileged status given to former princely rulers was discontinued in 1970.

Rajasthan has prospered over the last several decades, diversifying the largely agrarian economy with growth in manufacturing and service. Tourism has also increased significantly. The state has been governed by the Indian National congress for most of the time, although since the 1990s the Bharatiya Janata party (BJP) has formed several governments. They also lay claim to the state’s first female chief minister, Vasundhara Raje (2003 – 2008, and 2013 – 2018).

In our previous section, we heard quite a bit about the Rajput dynasties. So what was the history and background surrounding this group of people?

A Rajput (from Sanskrit meaning “son of a king”) is a member of the patrilineal clan of western, central, northern India and some parts of Pakistan. They claim to be descendants of ruling Hindu warrior classes of North India. As we learned, they rose to prominence during the 6th to the 12th centuries. In fact, until the 20th centuries, they ruled in the majority of the princely states of Rajasthan and Surashtra, were the largest number of princely states were found.

A princely state is also known as a native or Indian state and was a sovereign monarchy under a local or regional ruler in an alliance with a greater power. Princely state by and large refers to the semi- sovereign principality on the Indian subcontinent during the British rule, not directly governed by the British but rather by a local ruler in an indirect rule. In principle, they had internal autonomy. In practice, they were ruled by a variety of rulers.

Rajputs who are descended from the 36 royal Kshatriya clans mentioned in the sacred books, the Puranas, and in two great Indian epic books (the “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”) are classified into three basic lineages. They are the Suryavanshi, the Chandravanshi and the Agnivashi. Each of these are divided into several clans, all of who claim direct linkage from a remote but common male ancestor who supposedly belonged to that Vansha (lineage).

Many well-educated people have become innovators in information technology. Earlier in India’s history there was strict government control over foreign investment, banking, and other industries. By the early 1990s though, India reduced government control and opened markets to foreign trade and investment. Today India’s economy is one of the fastest-growing in the world.

In Rajasthan, agriculture is still the foundation of its economy. Cash crops include cotton and tobacco. Barley, wheat, sugarcane, and oilseeds are other crops grown in Rajasthan and exported throughout India.

It’s also produces more wool than any other state. Another natural resource in mining (of marble, copper, zinc, and salt deposits). The production of polyester fibre is also a main industry.

Typical of people throughout India, those who live in Rajasthan work hard to support their families. This northwestern area is less developed than the urban centers of the country, and still observes many cultures from its past.

There are many distinct customs which make Rajasthan such a mystical place. Most of the people of Rajasthan are involved in some way with tourism. There are customs which Rajasthani people follow, who believe that their guests are gods and are welcomed and treated as a god. There is a folk song called “Padharo Mhare Desh” which says “Welcome to my Country”. In India there is a slogan “Atithi Devo Bhav” which means “Guests are God”.

Dictum of Vedas:

Rajasthani people follow the dictum of the Vedas from birth till death. This includes the “Parda System” which requires females to cover their face with “Chunni”, done as a form of respect. Females also do not face unknown people in Rajasthan.

The Vedas are religious texts which originated in ancient India. They represent the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. There are four Vedas and each has four subdivisions. They are distinguished from other religious texts because they are śruti ("what is heard") and not smṛti ("what is remembered"). They have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE using special mnemonic techniques. The mantras are recited in the modern age and are considered the “Primordial rhythms of creation”(Contributors, 2020).

Child brides:

Rajasthan is home to the largest number of child brides. Although India has recognized the social evil of child marriage, one third of child marriages occur in Rajasthan. There was a government act, The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006 which prohibits marriage from a male under 21 or female under 18. Some facts about child marriages:

• Despite the decline in child marriage from 2005 to 2016 (47% to 27%), there are still nearly 1.5 million child brides in India.

• In Rajasthan, the prevalence of child marriage is 16.2%, compared to a national average of 11.9%.

• Girl child marriage is more common in rural areas (89.4%) than in urban areas (10.6%)

• Child marriages increase with lower wealth and lower education completion

There are many negative outcomes of child marriages including high maternal deaths, higher infant mortality, more violence in these marriages, more sex trafficking or forced labor, and ultimately less chance for a good education and good health care.

Things are changing, but slowly. Nearly 165 villages in Rajasthan have resolved not to permit child marriages, often creating “girl child friendly” villages. Also, in 2019, another village made printing the date of birth of both the bride and groom on the wedding cards. It is also required that the invites carry a warning stating that child marriages are punishable by law. (RajRAS, 2019)

Nata Pratha:

There is another custom in Rajasthan and other areas of India, that of Nata Pratha. This practice allows a “nata” (relationship) without a wedding ceremony, and allows men to live with as many women as they wish. Although the practice is meant to be between married or widowed people, it also has evolved to include single people as well. In this custom, the woman typically goes to live with a man, leaving behind the children from her previous marriage. The tradition may empower women by allowing them to leave husbands if they are unhappy with them.

Although it can be a positive thing (giving women the freedom to escape violent situations) it can also have devastating results from abandoned children, and from children being forced to work in fields and performing other work for foster guardians of these abandoned children. Another objection is that a man sets aside his first wife and the other is “paid for”.

Other marriage customs:

There are other marriage customs in India which are not familiar to the western world. Some tribes encourage marrying cousins or uncles, or a brother’s widow. Some tribes mandate a courtship period, while others have a provision for the bride or groom to live with the other’s family to test it out before formalizing the marriage. Some tribes pick a mate after just a glance at a community fair or a dance.

Each community bases its rules on experience, using geography, lifestyle and observations on how far people ca be pushed emotionally. Divorce is usually easy, allowing a couple to split up and move on. Marriage by elopement is common, and understood that afterwards, the couple will return and seek forgiveness and be accepted into the family. In some communities, long-term relationships are common, with weddings only occurring when the couple can afford it.

There is also a practice of marriage by abduction, or in more cases a mock- abduction. The bride’s family puts up a show of resisting as the groom’s party “carries away” a girl. Or there is “marriage by intrusion”, where a girl shows up at the house of the boy she wants to marry and refuses to leave until he accepts her as a wife. It is seen as a battle of wills.(Mjushtaq, 2017) (Zaidi, 2015)

Most other customs and traditions are related to the three major events in life (birth, marriage and death).

If the pain is unbearable, a sorcerer may help alleviate the pain. When the child is born, the naval cord is cut with a scythe and the child is rubbed with wheat flour and given a bath. The cord and placenta are buried by the new father’s sister to prevent evil spirits. The woman is given a partial bath after delivery, but waits until the sixth or seventh day when she can be dressed ceremoniously and brought out of the delivery room by the younger brother of the husband to worship the Sun. They will then be taken in a procession to the village well for a type of worship called jalwa.

A rich and varied folk culture from villages can be fascinating and mesmerizing. There is uncomplicated and innocent music and songs which depict day-to-day relationships and chores, such as gathering water, as well as highly cultivated classical music and dance.

Instruments range from simple flutes to trumpets, and from basic rhythms to fully developed bowing or plucking. There are songs for every occasion with emotional content. Each region has its own folk entertainment, with differing dance styles and musical instruments.

Rajasthan is known for its rich regal culture and heritage. The cuisine is shaped by the arid nature of the region, the extreme climate conditions and the scarcity of water and vegetation. As a result, their cooking styles are unique and have been molded in such a way that their dishes can be shelved for several days and served without heating. Here are some of the more traditional dishes you might encounter:

Panchmel ki Sabzi: This is a popular, healthy and tasteful dish that gets its name from the five ingredients used to create it. It is prepared out of five vegetables seasoned with a mix of aromatic spices including armchur (dried mango power). Served with roti (flatbread made with whole meal wheat flower) and rice.

Laal Maas: One of the most popular meat dishes which features the liberal use of red chilies. It is hot, spicy and fiery red in color.

Pyaaz Kachori: This popular spicy snack is a deep friend puffy pastry stuffed with spicy onion and usually served with a sweet and sour chutney.

Imarti: Imarti is a non-dairy based sweet dish. It is made of urad flour batter, deep-fried in the shape of a circular flower and dipped in sugar syrup.

Rajasthan is a unique and colorful culture. From its long history of rulers, to its age-old traditions, there are many things to consider when looking at Rajasthan. Don’t forget to join the Zoom session on Tuesday or Wednesday so you can learn even more about this distant land.

Contributors, W. (2020). Vedas. Retrieved from Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vedas&oldid=990777172

Custom & Tradition In Rajasthan. (2016, September 21). Retrieved from welcomerajasthan.com: https://www.welcomerajasthan.com/custom- and-tradition-rajasthan.htm

History of Rajputs in India. (2016, April 3). Retrieved from indianrajputs.com: http://www.indianrajputs.com/history/

India. (2024). Retrieved from https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/India/345707

Lodrick, D. a. (2019, May 24). Rajasthan. Retrieved from britannica.com: https://www.britannica.com/place/Rajasthan

Mjushtaq, S. (2017, May 10). Nata Pratha, a Tradition That Allows Men and Women to Live With Person of Their Choice. Retrieved from thecitizen.in: https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/9/10641/Na ta-Pratha-a-Tradition-That-Allows-Men-and-Women-to-Live-With- Person-of-Their-Choice

Rajasthan Music and Dance. (2016, September 21). Retrieved from welcomerajasthan.com: https://www.welcomerajasthan.com/rajasthan-music-dance.htm

Rajasthan. (2020, August 13). Retrieved from en.wikivoyage.org: https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Rajasthan

Rajasthani Food. (2017, August). Retrieved from culturalindia.net: https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-food/rajasthani.html

RajRAS. (2019, May 21). Child Marriage in Rajasthan. Retrieved from rajas.in: https://www.rajras.in/child-marriage-in-rajasthan

Sundararajan, G. (2020, August 22). CULTURE, CUSTOM AND TRADITION OF RAJASTHAN. Retrieved from medium.com: https://medium.com/@gayu.sundar/culture-custom-and-tradition-of- rajasthan-771723da4b8c

Zaidi, A. (2015, June 30). What India's old and unusual marriage customs tell us about a woman's consent. Retrieved from dailyo.in: https://www.dailyo.in/politics/child-marraige-natha-pratha-divorce- dowry-women-consent-inheritence/story/1/4683.html