MEMORY IS NOT A PERFECT RECORDING OF REALITY.
Instead, the brain constantly predicts, reconstructs, and updates information based on prior experiences and contextual cues.
Understanding how predictive processing and encoding specificity work can help us build stronger habits, improve learning, and make memory work better for us.
WHAT IS PREDICTIVE PROCESSING?
(& what's Encoding Specificity?)
Predictive Processing
According to Predictive Processing, your brain is constantly using what you already know (called schemas) to guess what is about to happen. As Frederic Bartlett argued, remembering is a "reconstructive" act rather than a perfect playback of events (Wagoner, 2017). We take a few details and fill in the rest based on expectations and prior experience.
Biologically, this process is explained by models such as the SLOSS model, which suggests that the brain balances general knowledge with specific details to predict future experiences better (van Kesteren & Meeter, 2020). When you learn something new, you are updating your brain's internal "map" so it can make more accurate predictions in the future... more than simply storing information.
Encoding Specificity
If the brain is the prediction machine, then Encoding Specificity is the set of clues it uses to retrieve the right memory. This principle suggests that memory works best when the conditions during retrieval match the conditions present during learning.
This is why you might forget why you walked into a room, only to remember the second you return to where you started. The environment, emotions, physical state, and even the way you interacted with information become part of the memory itself (McDermott & Roediger, 2026).
David Rubin's (2005) "basic systems" approach explains that memory is built from multiple systems working together, including vision, emotion, and sensory experiences. If the cues connected to those systems are missing during retrieval, your brain may struggle to access the memory because the necessary "hooks" are not available.
Setting Yourself Up for Predictive Success!
To improve memory, it helps to intentionally create strong retrieval cues. One of the most effective ways to do this is through practice testing and elaborative interrogation (Dunlosky et al., 2013).
Instead of rereading information repeatedly (which often creates a false sense of knowing), asking yourself why a concept is true forces the brain to connect new information with existing schemas. This strengthens predictive pathways and improves retrieval later on.
Practicing retrieval in ways that resemble the actual testing situation also helps because the cues present during learning more closely match the cues available during recall.
Stop trying to "RECORD" &
start trying to "PREDICT."
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS
MYTH BUSTING
Predictive Processing
MYTH BUSTING
Encoding Specificity
Encoding specificity...
is closely connected to habits because behaviors often become linked to specific contexts and cues over time. For example, a person may automatically snack while watching television because that environment has become associated with eating behavior. This concept also helps explain how habits change since altering the cues connected to a behavior and repeatedly practicing a new routine allows the brain to form new associations. Over time, consistent repetition in different contexts can weaken old habits.
Predictive processing...
helps explain why habits become automatic over time because the brain begins predicting behaviors and expected outcomes through repetition. Eventually, the new behavior becomes more automatic while the old habit weakens, showing the predictive systems are flexible and shaped by experience.
For example:
Studying in bed may train the brain to associate studying with distraction or sleepiness
Checking your phone every time you hear a notification creates automatic behavioral predictions
Eating snacks while watching television creates cue-based habits tied to context
Over time, the brain becomes more efficient at repeating behaviors connected to familiar cues.
However, because memory and prediction are adaptable, habits can also change when new associations are repeatedly practiced.
TINY EXPERIMENTS
What is a "Tiny Experiment"?
Based on Anne-Laure Le Cunff's book, Tiny Experiments are quick, hands-on activities that let you experience how memory works in real time. Instead of learning about memory, you can test it out for yourself.
Below are a couple of tiny experiments that you can try yourself!
Give it a go!
False Memory Experiment
Predictive Processing Experiment
Read the following list of words and try to remember as many as possible:
bed, rest, awake, tired,
dream, wake, snooze, blanket,
doze, slumber, snore, nap
Close the dropdown after you're finished.
Instructions
You will need:
Pencil, paper, and an object
Description:
This mini experiment asks you to draw an object of your choice under three different conditions (touch, sight, memory).
You will be asked to first draw the object without looking at the paper or object, only by perception of touch.
Then you'll be asked to draw the object again, but this time only being allowed to look at the object you chose and not the paper.
Lastly, you will be asked to draw the object based on your memory alone.
Then, without re-reading the list or looking back, answer the following question:
Was the word "sleep" on the list?
With your object, your paper, and pencil in front of you,
Close your eyes, only being allowed to touch your object (tactual).
Keeping your eyes closed, you will attempt to recreate the object you chose as a drawing onto the paper in front of you.
Only after finishing your initial drawing, you may open your eyes.
Results!
The word "sleep" was NOT on the list!
If you thought it was, that’s completely normal. Many people would answer “yes,” even though sleep was not listed. This happens because our memory stores the theme and meaning rather than the exact details. This shows that our memory is dynamic and creative; it’s not a perfect recording. It can feel accurate even when it’s not.
Next, you’ll repeat this process, but you’ll only be allowed to look at the object you chose (visual only, not tactile).
You’ll draw it still without looking at your paper.
Create one final drawing.
This time, you can not look at or touch your chosen object.
Instead, draw it solely based on your memory from your initial two attempts.
Then, compare your three drawings!
Why It Matters
We often feel confident in our memories. Memory shapes how we see ourselves and our experiences, but it can also be improved by using strategies like active recall and organization.
This experiment demonstrates predictive processing.
The participant is put under different stress conditions and asked to focus on a particular task and perform to a standard.
This creates a potential of a series of emotions in the participant (anxiety, joy, confusion, curiosity).
The goal of this experiment is to find a successful last drawing to prove prediction and encoding.
Success is measured by the similarity and accuracy of the drawing in comparison to the appearance of the original object.
HOW TO MAKE MEMORY WORK BETTER:
What DOESN'T Work
Re-reading
notes repeatedly
Passive
highlighting
Multitasking
while studying
Cramming
information
Relying on
Familiarity over Retrieval
Why These Strategies Usually
DON'T WORK:
It is commonly misconstrued that memory acts like a computer storage device or even a recording. Meaning memory 'saves' experiences exactly as they happened; also known as 'photographic memory'. When in actuality, memory is reconstructive.
Our memory is reliant on how information is encoded and the circumstances or situation in which it is received. When it comes to the "do's and don'ts" of memory retrieval, focusing primarily on encoding specificity and predictive processing, it is important to make the distinction that the brain is a prediction machine that interprets based on experience rather than being a storage system.
It has been observed that memory (explicitly autobiographical memory) is adaptively created rather than perfectly recalled (Conway et al.).
Ineffective tactics that are commonly misused by individuals include cramming information and re-reading notes repeatedly (trying to learn as much as possible in little time).
These unproductive strategies force shallow encoding due to a lack of connections and cues. Although you might observe small performance success, it is really a false sense of familiarity. This will, unfortunately, lead to retention failure.
These strategies often
create a false sense of knowing
without strengthening retrieval pathways.
What DOES Work!
Retrieval Practice
Testing yourself strengthens memory retrieval pathways and improves long-term recall.
Elaborative Interrogation
Asking 'Why is that true?' helps connect new information to existing schemas.
Matching Retrieval Conditions
Practicing in conditions similar to testing improves cue matching during recall.
Encoding Variability
Studying across multiple contexts creates more retrieval cues and flexibility.
Narrative Organization
Turning information into meaningful stories improves organization and recall.
Why THESE Strategies DO WORK:
One of the most beneficial strategies for memory retrieval is spaced repetition.
Spaced repetition encourages memory retention by frequently igniting cues (visual, emotional, physical).
This causes encoding specificity to take place.
While practicing spaced repetition, you naturally subject yourself to new information that correlates with prior schema structures, inherently enabling predictive processing (van Kesteren & Meeter 2020).
Another tactic to include to improve memory retrieval is deep processing.
Deep processing is a strategy that requires an individual to interpret information based on its meaning and connect it to existing schemas.
An example of this is note-taking through handwritten notes.
It has been observed to positively correlate with memory retention because of deliberate effort to re-summarize (Flanagan et al.).
These strategies
strengthen the predictive pathways
the brain uses during recall. The brain actively
builds stronger connections
between cues, meaning, and retrieval.
FINAL TAKEAWAY
Memory is not a passive recording system.
Your brain constantly predicts, reconstructs, and updates information based on prior experience and conceptual cues.
Understanding predictive processing and encoding specificity allows you to intentionally design better learning habits, stronger retrieval cues, and more adaptive ways of remembering.
The goal is NOT "perfect" memory...
It's to
build systems
that help your brain
predict successfully
and
maximize memory capabilities.
Topic Application
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
Memory is Dynamic & Creative
Memory is not a static recording of events, but a dynamic and creative process that shapes and reshapes our understanding of the world around us and from our past experiences. This course learning outcome shows that memory operates through reconstruction rather than replay. Each time we recall an experience, we actively reconstruct it using stored information, emotions, and contextual cues.
Memory Informs the Self
This dynamic nature of memory is reflected in the second learning outcome. Our sense of identity is deeply rooted in autobiographical memory, the collection of personal experiences that we use to construct our life story. Because memory is reconstructed, our identity is not fixed but evolves as we reinterpret past experiences, for example, recalling a challenging event as a moment of growth rather than failure can reshape how we see ourselves by shaping our mindset and perspectives, showing us how we can accomplish hard things.
Memory Improvement is Possible
The third course learning outcome explains the applications of understanding how memory works. Understanding that the plasticity of memory is to take control of our learning and our life narratives, studying memory is not only dependent on our understanding of human cognition but also supports the broader mission to think critically, care about others, and create new possibilities.
Kimberly Aragon
I am in the process of receiving my Bachelors of Science in Psychology with an interest in studying Occupational Therapy. I'm in the second year of my college experience with junior standing at Pacific University Oregon.
I came into this class expecting to learn mostly about memory disorders like Alzheimer's and dementia, but instead I learned how memory shapes everyday life, habits, decisions, and behavior.
One of my biggest takeaways is that memory is not a perfect recording, but a flexible process influences by context, experiences, and repetition.
I recommend this website to people because the information is relatable and easy to connect to real life experiences.
India Cartwright
After earning my associate's degree in Psychology at Portland State University, I am currently pursuing a Bachelors of Arts in Psychology at Pacific University, with a particular interest in Sports Psychology.
At the start, I assumed we would primarily focus on memory loss. Instead, I refined my understanding about how memory is reconstructive and how the brain absorbs information the best.
This project served as an enlightening tool about how memory and the brain works.
I would recommend this website to those who have any interest in memory processes.
Alena Krull
I am currently a graduating senior pursuing a Bachelor's degree in German with a minor in Psychology at Pacific University.
At first, I thought I would learn how to improve my memory; however, I instead gained a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes involved in memory use.
This project provides a hands-on experience that also helps better understand how memory works.
I recommend this website to anyone in learning more about memory, as it offers insight into what memory is capable of and how it can be effectively used.
Augusta Passalacqua
After completing my BS in Psychology next year at Pacific, I plan to pursue a nursing degree to be a Pediatric RN.
Initially, I thought this class would focus on maximizing memory storage and recall (the views I was already familiar with).
Instead, I learned brand new (to me) theories that memory is dynamic and reconstructive, shaped by expectations, environments, and habits.
This project makes the research practical by connecting concepts like predictive processing to everyday behaviors.
I recommend this website to others, especially students, as it changes how we approach learning and habits by showing that memory is flexible and adaptive.
References
Bubic, A., von Cramon, D. Y., & Schubotz, R. I. (2010). Prediction, cognition, and the brain. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 25. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00025
Corlett, P. R., Mohanty, A., & MacDonald, A. W. (2020). What we think about when we think about predictive processing. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 129(6), 529–533. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000632
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266
Hill, K. A., Cohen, S. S., Olson, I. R., & Newcombe, N. S. (2025). The role of narrative structure in scaffolding children’s recall. Journal of Cognition and Development. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2025.2571554
Hogendoorn, H., & Burkitt, A. N. (2019). Predictive coding with neural transmission delays: A real-time temporal alignment hypothesis. eNeuro, 6(2), ENEURO.0412-18.2019. https://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0412-18.2019
Kleinknecht, E. (2026). PSY314SP26_Syllabus. Google Sites. https://sites.google.com/pacificu.edu/psy314sp26syllabus/course-learning-outcomes
Kleinknecht, E., & Beike, D. R. (2004). How knowing and doing inform an autobiography: Relations among preschoolers' theory of mind, narrative, and event memory skills. Applied Cognitive Psychology: The Official Journal of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 18(6), 745-764.
Rubin, D. C. (2005). A basic-systems approach to autobiographical memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 79–83.
van Kesteren, M. T. R., & Meeter, M. (2020). How to optimize knowledge construction in the brain. NPJ Science of Learning, 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-020-0064-y
Wagoner, B. (2017). Frederic Bartlett. In The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Memory (pp. 537–545). Routledge.