About The Authors

Maddie Napalan

I am a sophomore majoring in psychology with a minor in Psychological Health and Well-Being. At the beginning of the semester, I expected to learn how memory works and how the brain stores information. By the end of the course, I learned that memory is reconstructive, which means our brains do not store perfect recordings of events. This helped me become more patient with myself when I forget things because I now understand that forgetting is a normal part of how memory works. Creating this project showed me how useful the class is in everyday life. It helped me connect course concepts to real situations and made the material more meaningful. I would share this website with others because it explains memory in a way that is easy to understand and can help people feel less frustrated about forgetting. My biggest takeaway from this semester is that memory is not perfect, but it is designed to help us focus on what matters most.

Micah Antick-Oslund

I am a senior graduating with a BA and will be pursuing a nursing career afterwards. Going into the term, I had heard a little from others about the topics in this class. Regardless, I went into this term hoping to learn about building, strengthening, & activating memory. All of which we covered, in addition to covering anatomical structures and key differentiations between memory types. This project really brought everything together, helping me to recall the usefulness this class and its topics have already served. I've found myself talking and informing others about points and topics covered. I will certainly share this with others once it's published, as it will save me a lot of talking, as mentioned above.

Emiko Dyson

I am majoring in kinesiology with a minor in math, and will be pursuing physical therapy. At first, I thought this class would simply dig deeper into the cognitive approach to psychology. Instead, this class has taught me that creativity emerges from normal neural processes instead of simply being a "trait" that people possess, and how to break damaging scripts I held onto. This project changed my thoughts about this class because it allowed me to tie everything we've learned and compile it together. I would share this website with others because it easily explains the impact of culture and identity on memory. My biggest takeaway is that focusing on the 'why' is just as important, if not more, than looking into what the facet entails.

Jay Hanson

I am a second-year transfer student majoring in psychology and philosophy, with a minor in music. Originally, I assumed that this class would reinforce my previous understanding of memory as a process similar to a computer system: encoding, retrival, falure, and success. Instead, I learned to percive memory in a whole new light, as something that is inherntly creative, and purposefully malleable. My time in this course has empowered me to break the habits that were holding me back from trying new things, and inspired me to make lasting changes in my behavior (ie study-habits, initation of social interactions, etc). I plan to share this website with others when it is published, so that other students can utilize the information provided, and feel inspired to change the way that they study.

How does the Self Memory System Work?

The self-memory system is a framework developed by Martin Conway and colleagues explaining how long-term memory and the working self interact to form identity. This principle links memories and personal goals together, emphasizing that personal objectives dictate how lives are remembered. Humans cannot consciously be aware of these processes, but they are aware of the outputs.

3 main processes of the self-memory system (SMS):

Mental representations: constructed from autobiographical knowledge and episodic memory
All patterns in the construction of knowledge structures are triggered by cues
Central control processes (CCS) utilize a search/evaluate/elaborate cycle to refine cues to find the desired knowledge

3 Knowledge Structures for Future-Oriented Thought

Conceptual self: knowledge about goals + future
Autobiographical knowledge base: hierarchical of general events/lifetime periods/life story
Episodic system: details from past experiences that can reconstruct/construct information for past and future

Diving Deeper

Episodic Memory: contains sensory details from single experiences (i.e., "experience-near" and visual imagery), represented in groups within autobiographical knowledge structures

The Autobiographical Knowledge Base: framework to construct memories and future thoughts

Stored representations: who we are/beliefs/past experiences
Transitory representations: reconstructive with conscious awareness, fleeting

Central Control Process: manages how personal goals interact with knowledge

Generative retrieval: conscious, evaluates outputs from construction and turns them into a better cue
Direct retrieval: spontaneous, not aware of output from construction

Neurological Level:

More abstract=more anterior
Injuries: results in loss of episodic detail, impaired mental time travel, and inability to generate visual images

Embodied Cognition

Cognitive processes are deeply in influenced by the body's sensations, movements, and interactions with the environment.

Memory defines our sense of self
Experiences: past experiences shape/influence our present actions

Memory is strengthened through sensory experiences such as smells, sounds, places, and rituals

The mind is connected to the body, emotions, environments, and social experiences
Emotional experiences create stronger memory encoding and retrieval
Identity develops through lived experiences and interactions with others
Intergenerational narratives connect physical experiences, emotions, culture, and memory
Autobiographical memory: body and environment act as retrieval cues
Narrative identity forms through the experiences people physically and emotionally live through
Family traditions and rituals demonstrate how cognition is embedded within real-world experiences and relationships

Popular Misconceptions

#1 Our past behaviors and current habits define our future (follow the Cognitive Script)

#2 The self is a universal, default construct

#3 Identity is found on our own

#4 Knowledge is permanently organized and stored in a fixed location

Deeper Dive into Misconceptions

#1 Cognitive Scripts

Misconception:

Our past behaviors and current habits define our future.

What is a Cognitive Script?

As we move from day to day, our brain works to match the current information it is receiving to similar constructs within the memory system.
Cognitive scripts highlight the predictability of our daily lives, allowing us to grasp how things “should” unfold based on our past experiences.
However, the security of following our habits can prevent us from having novel experiences.

Le Cunff’s Categories of Script

The Sequel

Also known as “continuation bias.”
This script functions by allowing an individual to use their past habits as a rigid guideline for their future behaviors.
Example: A student only registers for courses similar to those they have taken in the past, rather than trying to take a class unrelated to their current studies.

The Crowdpleaser

This script occurs when an individual conforms to a path due to social pressures.
Example: A person picks their college major based on the career goals their parents have for them.

The Epic

"Follow your passion" may seem like great advice on the surface, but this mentality can be just as restrictive as the other cognitive scripts.
Research suggests that phrases like these increase the likelihood that a person will give up on an interest when they run into a setback.
Placing all of your focus on a singular goal limits your opportunities!
Example: A person is passionate about music, but refuses to pursue any career paths or hobbies outside of musicianship. Therefore, they miss out on developing an abundance of other important skills.

Breaking Free from Cognitive Scripts: Tiny Experiment

Part One:
- - - - Pay closer attention to your thoughts, energy, emotions, observations, and habits on a day to day basis
        Keep a journal over the course of five days
        Search for patterns within your notes. Take notice of what tends to trigger stress, or what habits you would like to change.

Part Two:
- - - - Set small goals or "changes" in your daily routine, and continue to collect data for another few days.
        Reflect on how the alterations you made affected your mood, thought patterns, and overall experience in comparison to the previous data set.
        Decide whether you would like to continue implementing the changes you made, or try something else!

#2 Independent Self

Misconception:

The self is a universal, default construct.
The self is solely constructed and defined through ones traits, values, motives, and behaviors.

What is the Self, Really?

Aspects of the self
- - - - Universal

(Presumably) every person has awareness of the internal activity of consciousness (dreams, internal thoughts, etc)
Awareness of this activity and its privacy allows for the creation of an "inner" sense of self

2. Divergent

The perceptual notion of “self” significantly varies from culture to culture.

Construals of Self: Independent vs Interdependent
- - - - Independent

Western cultures, like in the United States, tend to emphasize the independence and uniqueness of self
There is a greater focus on processes like self-actualization, autonomy, and individuality

Interdependent

Many Non-Western cultures emphasize the connectedness of humanity; analyzing "self" in relation to one’s family, friends, and community.

Some examples of cultures that have a more interdependent understanding of the self include various Asian, African, and Hispanic cultures, as well as certain Western religious cultures such as the Quakers

This alters the function of "self" in regard to:
- - 1. Cognition

Because these collectivist cultures function interdependently, self is viewed as a part of society rather than a "bounded whole"
Individuals from said cultures have a denser, more elaborate store of information about others rather than themselves
Individuals organize knowledge of the self in regards to specific social situations and thier roles in society

- - 1. Emotion

Individuals from a culture that emphasizes interdependence often supress "ego-focused" emotions, such as anger

Greater emphasis on the importance of emotions such as sympathy, empathy, and shame

- - 1. Motivation

- - Increased focus of the fulfillment of "achievements" related to expectations set by family, friends, or significant others
  - A strong sense of secondary control, with the ability to adjust oneself to accommodate existing realities
  - A greater emphasis on skills such as self-restraint, and the ability to be flexible, and adjust to meet social demands

#3 Identity

Misconception:

Identity must be formed separate from ones family and roots

So What Actually Happens?

Identity is co-constructed through narrative and social interactions
Intergenerational storytelling, allows for a link between past, present and future in the form of a coherent narrative identity
Through reminiscence, children vicariously live through their parents experiences
Utilization of a "shared voice" to the values and lessons learned from stories helps with the exploration of moral agency and social roles
This helps children to delebop and shape their values and morals

#4 Categorization and Recall of Information

Misconception:

When we categorize and recall information, such as important events, the knowledge is permanently organized and stored in a fixed location

So What Actually Happens?

Stored vs. transitory representations
With ad-hoc groupings, our brain uses cues to group memories together
When one episodic memory is accessed, the likelihood of others being accessed increases
We have future-oriented thought, which contains details that can reconstruct/construct past and future events

Working with memory engages a creative construction process - generative retrieval via cues to recall
Personal goals act as a control that selects + filters what details make it into a memory

What Strategies Often Fail and Why

Multi-tasking

Many people attempt to work, learn, or study while reading messages, browsing social media, watching videos, or juggling several tasks at once (e.g., reading messages and browsing social media).

Why this doesn't work: Sustained attention is necessary for memory encoding. The brain processes each task more superficially when attention is split, resulting in weaker, less structured memory traces. Fewer details encoded result in fewer retrieval cues available later. Though multitasking can give the appearance of efficiency, it lowers comprehension and long-term recall. According to the SMS, fragmented attention limits the integration of new experiences into autobiographical memory and identity by making it more difficult to link them to preexisting knowledge structures and personal goals.

Avoiding Reflection & Emotional Experiences

Many people move from one experience to the next without taking time to think about what happened or how it made them feel.

Why this doesn't work: Reflection and emotion are essential for turning experiences into meaningful autobiographical memories. According to the SMS, memories linked to one's own objectives, values, and feelings become a part of one's identity. Experiences don't become integrated components of a cohesive life narrative when they are not reflected upon. Because emotionally significant experiences are usually remembered more vividly, ignoring emotional relevance also hinders encoding and retrieval. Therefore, people can recall what happened but not comprehend its significance or its influence on their identity. This can reduce narrative coherence and make identity feel fragmented or less meaningful.

Dependence on Technology

A lot of individuals use their phones, calendars, search engines, and note-taking apps to help them recall schedules, crucial information, and even personal experiences.

Why this doesn't work: Technology can be helpful, but when it takes the role of memory instead of enhancing it, there are fewer opportunities for active retrieval. When people repeatedly recall knowledge and relate it to relevant contexts, their memory strengthens. The brain uses fewer retrieval processes when everything is stored on a device, which can eventually weaken neural networks. An excessive dependence on technology may also promote shallow processing, in which information is quickly stored rather than thoroughly encoded. Within the SMS, fewer opportunities to retrieve and reflect on experiences may limit integration of memories into the broader narrative of the self.

Activities That DO Work

Handwrite Your Notes (The "Longhand" Advantage)

Instead of using a laptop, you should take lecture or meeting notes by hand.

Handwriting forces paraphrasing and personalization of information ratherthan verbatim recording, requiring deeper cognitive processing!

Additionally, the physical act of penning letters activates unique motor regions in the brain, which aid in long-term memory.

Implement Retrieval Practice & Elaboration

The transition from simple memorization to true understanding can be made using repeated self-quizzing.

Retrieval practice, such as teaching or writing exactly as one speaks, is significantly more effective for long-term retention than re-reading!
This works by strengthening the neural pathway and integrating the information with already activated knowledge.
Elaboration involves asking yourself how new information relates to what you already know or how it links to other topics. This process helps integrate new memories into existing "schemas" (or knowledge frameworks), making the information easier to retrieve and the pathway stronger!

Use Narrative Scaffolding for Learning

When trying to learn or disseminate complex information, restructure the material as a story (narrative) rather than a dry list of facts.

Research shows that consistent comprehension and recall of information occurs when info is presented as a story.
This "narrative advantage" exists because stories mirror everyday human experiences, following a familiar pattern (setting, goal, obstacle, resolution, & emotion).
For children, the act of organizing personal experiences into a coherent narrative acts as an internal scaffold that helps them consolidate and retrieve those memories later on.

Share Intergenerational Family Stories

Families should set aside time to share stories about their parents' and grandparents' youth, especially regarding how they overcame hardships or handled mistakes.

Sharing these "intergenerational narratives" allows this powerful tool to build a child's sense of self.
Adolescents who know more about their family history show higher levels of identity development, higher self-esteem, and better coping skills.
For the elders, telling these stories provides a sense of generativity, or the feeling that they are passing on valuable life lessons and moral frameworks to the next generation.

Practicing Strategic Incubation for Creativity

You should take a diliberate break and engage in an undemanding, unrelated task that allows for mind-wandering if you find yourself stuck on a difficult problem.

This strategy, known as incubation, involves taking time away to allow your mind to "forget" the unhelpful ideas, fixations on thoughts blocking the solution.

*Mind-wandering during this period facilitates creative insight because it allows for unconscious spreading activation between general ideas in your memory network.

*In this instance*

Play Numerical Board Games with Children

Engaging young children in linear board games like "Chutes and Ladders" helps boost early math skills & resilience.

Games that provide multisensory foundations for understanding are perfect for this.
As children move their tokens (for example), they receive spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and time-based cues. The higher the number, the higher the token moves; the more physical movements they make, the more they have spoken or heard. This immediate feedback is really important for learning & takeaways.
Research just recently presented showed that games of this fashion can change participants' thought processes in roughly 40 minutes, leading to long-lasting change and gains in the child's favor.

Eager to Test It Out? Click Here!

Final Takeaway

How we perceive ourselves is dependent on culture and not universal.
Identity is co-constructed through a narrative, intergenerational process.
Our brains use building blocks to reconstruct the past and create potential future scenarios.
Searching for one purpose, or relying on old habits, can limit our potential by creating a fixed path.

References

Conway, M. A., Justice, L. V., & D’Argembeau, A. (2019). The self-memory system revisited. The organization and structure of autobiographical memory, 28-51.

Le Cunff, A.L (2025). Escaping the Tyranny of Purpose. Tiny Experiments: How to Live Freely in a Goal-Obsessed World (pp. 39-54). Avery.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224

Merrill, N. & Fivush, R. (2016). Intergenerational narratives and identity across development. Developmental Review, 40, 72-92.

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