By: Afsheen, Ant, Austin, Akoni

At the core of the “less is more” idea is cognitive load theory which explains that our working memory has a limited capacity. At any given moment the brain can only actively process a small amount of information before becoming overloaded (van Kesteren & Meeter, 2020). When too much information is presented at once, such as trying to write down every word of a lecture, the brain shifts its resources toward managing that input rather than understanding it. 

Cognitive load is often broken into three types. Intrinsic load refers to the inherent difficulty of the material itself. Extraneous load comes from how information is presented such as cluttered slides or trying to multitask while learning. German load is the productive effort used to actually understand and organize information. When students try to capture everything they increase extraneous load and reduce the mental resources available for germane processing, the kind that actually builds memory (van Kesteren & Meeter, 2020). 

This helps explain why more information can actually lead to worse learning. Instead of strengthening memory, overload prevents the brain from forming meaningful connections leaving information shallow and easily forgotten (van Kesteren & Meeter, 2020). Dunlosky et al. (2013) also found that ineffective learning strategies involving too much unstructured information are less effective for long term learning and retention.

Another key mechanism behind this paradox is selective attention, or the brain’s ability to focus on certain information while filtering out the rest. Memory does not begin with storage, it begins with attention. If something is not attended to it is unlikely to be encoded at all. 

When students try to divide their attention across too many inputs; listening, typing every word, or checking devices, they weaken their ability to focus on what actually matters. Research inspired by Bartlett’s work shows that memory is reconstructive, meaning we actively interpret and organize information rather than passively record it (Wagoner, 2017).

Because attention is limited, trying to focus on everything results in focusing on nothing deeply. Effective learning depends on prioritizing key ideas not capturing every detail (van Kestern & Meeter, 2020). By narrowing attention learners can process information more meaningfully which strengthens encoding.

These mechanisms come together in what we call encoding paradox: the more effort you put into recording information exactly as presented the less likely you are to remember it. In contrast, reducing information through summarizing actually improves memory. 

When students copy notes verbatim they engage in shallow processing, focusing on surface features like words and structure. This creates the illusion of learning but the information is not being encoded. On the other hand summarizing requires deep processing, you must interpret, reorganize, and connect the material to what you already know. This aligns with research on knowledge construction which shows that memory improves when new information is integrated into existing schemas (Flanigan et al., 2024).

This is why handwriting notes often outperform typed notes. The slower pace forces learners to filter and transform information rather than transcribe it (van Kesteren & Meeter, 2020). The act of simplifying information reduces cognitive load and increases meaningful engagement making the memory more stable and accessible later (Rubin, 2005).

While many students dream of the mythical ‘photographic memory’ that would yield a perfect recollection of course content, that is not the way the human brain works. However, all hope is not lost; there are a variety of effective strategies to improve memory outcomes, as well as some common pitfalls students fall into. 

Now that one is prepared with wonderfully paraphrased and personalized handwritten notes, written and answered reflection questions that connect the information to prior knowledge, and maybe even written a compelling story about the content, what are the best ways to prepare to apply this knowledge before an exam? In a review of ten learning techniques researchers identified the two highest utility and two lowest utility techniques. Unfortunately for many students highlighting and rereading, the two most commonly used tactics, had the least utility. While still helpful, these strategies should not be relied upon exclusively. 

The two best learning techniques are practice testing and distributed practice. Practice testing involves low stakes self initiated study of material. The above advice, such as engaging in elaborative review questions are an example of this strategy. Other examples include flashcards, practice problems, or the questions often found at the end of textbook chapters. Next, distributed practice is shorter but more regular study questions. It is far more effective to do 10 practice questions a day for 10 days than it is to do 100 questions in a single session. The act of repeatedly accessing the information notifies the brain that that content is of importance and should be stored. See more about how to apply all of this information in the applications and mini experiments section. (Dunlosky et al., 2013).

Goal: test whether narrative (story-based) or expository (informational) text leads to better memory and what kind of memory each supports

Materials: Choose two unfamiliar topics and find a similar length and reading level article for each topic (e.g., black holes, wild birds, ADHD, ice hockey). Keep one of the articles and keep it in the expository format that it is, then take the other and convert it into a story using an AI generator.

Independent Variable: The test format: Expository (textbook-style) vs Narrative (written like a story)

Dependent variable: Score on multiple choice test (out of ten) and free recall. The MC tests can be AI generated for each of the articles.

Day 1: baseline (no preparation)

Take a free recall and multiple choice test for both topics (narrative and expository), where you write as many things down about the topic as you can then take an MC test on the topics.

Day 2: Expository Recall

Read the expository version then afterwards put the text away and complete a free recall test.

Day 3: Expository MC

Take a multiple choice test on the same topic.

Day 4: Narrative Free recall

Read the narrative version, then take a free recall test.

Day 5: Narrative MC 

Take the multiple choice test

To grade free recall, write how many complete ideas you wrote then how many incorrect ideas you wrote