Emma

Acetylcholine is one of the most well-known neurotransmitters that works in the brain by sending nerve impulses down to the neuromuscular junction. This substance has many different effects on humans such as, it triggers muscle contraction, stimulates hormone secretion, involved in wakefulness, attentiveness, memory, learning, anger, aggression, and sexuality.

Acetylcholine plays an important role in the brain, most importantly on improving our memory. Studies have shown that the lack of this neurotransmitter in the brain can link to Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease.

ACh can have excitatory actions at the neuromuscular junction, stimulating muscle contraction, and inhibitory actions at certain smooth or cardiac muscles.

ACh is a target of many natural and artificial poisons. For example, Curare (a plant extract used for arrow poison), blocks muscle contraction and makes you paralyzed. It does this by competing with acetylcholine for the binding sites in the synapses that control muscle contraction. Another example, Nicotine (drug from tobacco), binds to ACh receptors, but instead stimulates the receptors by turning them on rather than off.

Glutamate is the opposite neurotransmitter to GABA. While GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, Glutamate is the primary excitatory one.

Glutamates primary function is to encourage and promote the transmission of signals in the nervous system. This function is based on the 'Goldilocks principle" you need just the right amount of it. Too little excitation makes for difficulty concentrating or mental tiredness. Too much is actually toxic and can damage cells.

Glutamate functions in the synaptic cleft, it is released from the signaling neuron to bind to the receptors on the receiving neuron.

Glutamate cannot cross the blood-brain barrier meaning it must be assembled in the neurons themselves using basic building blocks.

Also known as noradrenaline, norepinephrine is both a hormone and neurotransmitter.

As a hormone norepinephrine serves as a response to stress it excites the body. When placed in a stressful situation it works alongside of adrenaline to raise blood sugar and heart rate and prepare the body for action

As a neurotransmitter it serves in the sympathetic nervous system. It excited nerves and prepares the body to react to an acute threat.

Norepinephrine because of its ability to excite the body is often used in medical settings to raise blood pressure, and encourage recovery in the immediate aftermath of shock.

GABA is short for gamma-aminobutyric acid. It occurs naturally in your body and works as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It blocks certain brain signals and decreases nervous system activity. When GABA is released in a neuron, it binds to GABA receptors. These are channel receptors that let ions in and out of the cell. When the GABA is attached, the shape of the receptor changes to let mainly negatively charged ions to enter. This increases the negative charge inside the neuron and thus reduces excitability.

GABA helps with feelings of anxiety, fear, or stress. People with low levels of GABA can suffer from many things, such as seizures, panic disorders, ADHD, anxiety, and even depression. Some people take GABA supplements if they suffer from these things, but the potential side effects of GABA supplements have not been fully tested. GABA is produced in the body and cannot be gotten from foods. However, certain foods can boost GABA production and how well it works in the brain. These foods include beans, nuts, and fish, as well as other fruits, vegetables, and even red wine.

Alcohol has an effect on the brain because it blocks chemical signals between the neurons. This causes intoxication, and effects bodily functions. People get impulsive behavior, slurred speech, poor memory, and slowed reflexes as a result of excess alcohol consumption. Alcohol can be an addictive drug. It is however, safe for normal consumption if taken in moderation. A glass of wine or a beer with dinner will not effect you other than relaxation, by lowering neural activity. It can be addictive if taken in excess. It also has a threshold for how much you can drink at one time. If you drink too much you can black out, and even potentially get your stomach pumped.

Alcohol is a depressant that affects both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters by altering their levels.

There are natural sources of alcohol in most animal tissue, cholesterol is a good example of that.

Raelene Slaa

Emma

Valium, or diazepam, is used to treat anxiety, alcohol withdrawal, and seizures. It can also be used to relieve muscle spasms and provide sedation before medical procedures. It does this by calming your brain and nerves by discouraging neurons from firing (suppressing abnormal electrical signals). It boosts the efficiency of GABA, which is basically your brains "off switch".

Some common side-effects of taking Valium include trouble with coordination, sleepiness, and some long-term effects like dependence on the drug and possible withdrawal symptoms.

It is most likely that Valium binds to the same neuronal receptors as GABA, making it an inhibitory neurotransmitter. This is because GABA has a specific ion channel that changes shape to only allow negatively charged chlorine ions to pass through. This reduces the excitability, making it an inhibitor.

Valium has a low threshold for overdose, but it is highly addictive. It can easily be abused, if taken more than prescribed or taking it if not prescribed, increasing withdrawal symptoms. Taking this drug longer than 4-6 weeks, even if prescribed by a doctor, can lead to addiction, making it harder for your brain to function normally without the drug.

Barbiturates act as a central nervous system depressant. Its effects include:

• Reduced anxiety

• Euphoria

• Sleepiness

Medicinal uses:

• General Anesthesia

• Epilepsy/seizures

• Migraines/headaches

• Anxiety

• Sleep disorders

They are also used in Euthanasia, Capital punishment, or assisted suicide.

Barbiturates have also been used in interrogation because they slow creative thinking and decrease inhibitions.

Barbiturates are inhibitory drugs because they slow down functioning in the central nervous system.

Barbiturates are chemical derivatives of barbituric acid. If used regularly your body can develop a tolerance to them. They are addictive, but are less addictive than most drugs, which is why barbiturates have replaces several drugs in the medical field. If you overdose, you will experience similar effects as with drunkenness, and in severe cases, coma or death. Older adults and pregnant women should not take barbiturates.

Tianna

Chemical name: Alprazolam

C17H13ClN4

Xanax increases the effects of GABA which produces calmness and a relaxed feeling.

Treats anxiety and panic disorders by decreasing the level of excitement in the brain.

Effects include temporary memory loss, drowsiness, as well as hostility or irritability.

Too much Xanax can cause shallow breathing, dilated pupil, clammy skin, weak heartbeat.

Overdoses can lead to a coma or death.

Xanax works very closely with GABA which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that decreases the excitability of neurons. By enhancing GABA, Xanax decreases anxiety and other muscle tremors.

Xanax is a fast acting medication and it is very strong thus making it quite addictive. It causes a big change in the brain in a short time period and it is considered one of the most addictive benzodiazepine medications.

Just like any addictive drug Xanax is very dangerous and can do serious damage to your brain and telling your body that it needs the drug, if the dosages are not carefully followed.

By: Jaime

Amphetamines are excitatory drugs that speed up the nervous system. They act similarly to adrenaline as a stimulant. They were very common in the mid 1900s as treatment for nasal congestion, depression, and even obesity, but there were dangerous side effects and there was a high potential for abuse. Today, there are only 4 amphetamines that are legal for medical use and they are used to treat ADHD. Amphetamines were often used to stay awake and alert, for more energy, and for longer endurance. Amphetamines work in the brain by diffusing through the membrane of the presynaptic neuron and since it is similar in structure to dopamine, it can enter through the dopamine terminals. Once inside the cell, amphetamine forces dopamine out of its storage vesicles and across the synaptic gap, causing a feeling of euphoria. This feeling of euphoria lasts only about a minute, but the full effect of the amphetamine (increased breathing and alertness) lasts about 12 hours. If misused, amphetamine can be addictive. However, the use of the drug leads to tolerance, so the body needs more and more to get high, which can lead to overdose and death.

• Endorphins are polypeptide hormones that are made by the pituitary gland and central nervous system

• Function: Help deal with stress and reduce pain

  • It creates feelings of pleasure because endorphin activity increases dopamine production

• Endorphins are excitatory hormones

Effect on Brain:

• Act on the opiate receptors in the brain

• Act like natural pain killers for your brain

When are they released:

• Causes of release:

  • response to pain/stress

  • exercise

  • eating

Brody

Codeine is considered an opioid pain medication. Opioids bind with the same receptors as opium giving feelings of: sedation, pain relief, or slowed breathing. In particular codeine effects two neurotransmitters: serotonin and dopamine. Codeine reacts with the brain's chemical processes in the brain involving these neurotransmitters. Codeine can also lower the activity the the part of the brain involving coughing, for this reason codeine can be used as a cough medication.

Codeine can be very dangerous because it slows down breathing rates too much and can cause death. Unborn children can die from Codeine withdrawal if the mother was taking codeine. People under 18 should not be taking codeine.

https://www.drugs.com/codeine.html

https://www.codeine.com/effects/side-effects-codeine-need-medical-attention.html

http://codeinerehab.com/about-codeine/codeine-effects-body-mind/

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/opioid

Shayna

Kaylee

Physical Effects:

• affects the receptors of the nervous system - different receptors have different jobs so they react in different ways

  • the m2 receptor can affect the heart, morphine affects the m2 receptors and makes the person feels drowsy

• make you not feel pain

• irregular appetite

• increaed blood sugar

• affects brain development

  • • affects the forming of dendrites in the brain. This is turn affects motivation and learning

    • affects the density of dendrites

Mental Effects:

• hallucinations

• delusions

Addictive:

• yes, very much so

• the more often you use it the higher quantity you will need to use it

Natural Source: opium poppy

• if you were to be tested and their was morphine residue left in your urine it could be because you ingested codeine, heroin or poppy seeds

What is it used for:

• medicine used to manage chronic pain

• severe to moderate types of pain

• surgery

https://www.healthline.com/health/pain-relief/morphine-side-effects#long-term-side-effects

https://americanaddictioncenters.org/morphine-treatment/mental-and-physical-effects

Heroine is a drug that is made from morphine, a natural substance taken from the poppy seed . It is a very addictive drug and has a big effect on the brain both during and after the drug is taken. Heroine, when consumed, is converted to morphine and binds rapidly to opioid receptors. When this occurs, a person will feel a rush. Other effects are a warm flushing of the skin, a dry mouth, and a heavy feeling in the extremities. Nausea, vomiting, and severe itching may also occur. After the fact, the person will usually be drowsy for several hours. Mental, breathing and heart functions slow. The breathing is sometimes slow enough to be life-threatening. Slowed breathing can also lead to coma and permanent brain damage. Heroin has both excitatory and inhibitory qualities. Heroine, as an opioid, does mimic a neurotransmitter.

Raelene Slaa

The scientific name for this drug is Tetrahydrocannabinol, or Cannabis in its short form. It's grown in the form of the cannabis plant.

Marijuana can make you feel relaxed and content by releasing dopamine, but can also create feelings of paranoia, anxiety, and panic. It lowers ones reaction time, and decreases coordination. It can raise your chances of getting depression, or worsen your symptoms if you're already diagnosed.

Depending on the person, the dose of Marijuana can have different effects. On one hand, an individual could smoke a lot and their body is able to take it. Other individuals smoke too much and get sick.

Studies are being done when it comes to its long-term effects, but its believed to lower your IQ level.

Marijuana leads to addiction for around 30% of its users, but it's 4-7 times more likely for a person to develop an addiction if they started before the age of 18.

(Lysergic acid diethylamide)

• Also known as 'acid'

• Is a hallucinogen made from lysergic acid (which is found in fungus that grows on rye and other grains)

Affects on the body/how it feels:

• The effects of this mind-altering drug can either be:

  • Pleasurable and stimulating

  • Or unpleasant and terrifying

• LSD is very potent and measured in micrograms

• Can be found in different forms:

  • blotter paper

  • thin squares of gelatin

  • tablet form

  • liquid on sugar cubes

  • pure liquid form

Affects on brain:

• Interacts with serotonin receptors in the brain

Brody

Magic mushrooms are hallucinogenic drugs that can be consumed in a couple different ways. They can be eaten fresh, cooked, brewed into a tea, or dried and smoked.

In the liver, the psilocybin is converted to psilocin and it alters the serotonin levels in the brain. It takes 20-40 minutes for the effects to begin, and they continue until the psilocin is metabolized and excreted. This can take up to 6 hours, but it depends on the amount of psilocybin was in the mushroom or how much they took.

There are both physical and mental effects. The physical ones include dilated pupils, headaches, drowsiness, increased heart rate/blood pressure/temperature, lack of coordination, etc. Mental effects are the more drastic ones, such as both visual and auditory hallucinations, panic, paranoia, distorted sense of place/time/reality, spiritual experiences, euphoria, etc.

There are some serious risks when it comes to taking this drug. There's a chance for the individual to experience convulsions, and it might even change ones personality in the long run. Due to the fact that the mushrooms look similar to poisonous kinds, there's also a chance that the wrong mushroom is eaten. Eating a poisonous mushroom can result in organ damage, serious illness, and even death.

Magic mushrooms aren't addictive due to how mentally and emotionally challenging the experience is. Our bodies also build up a tolerance to psilocybin, so you'll need to take more in order to feel as strong of an effect.

Pictures

• 1 = Psilocybin

• 2 = Psilocin

• 3 = Mushrooms

Ayahuasca is a pharmaceutical monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Its effects include:

• Effects on the visual cortex of your brain

• Vomiting

• Emotional and Physiological stress

Uses:

• Medicine

• Suicide prevention

• Depression

• Aid in religious practices

Ayahuasca is South American and is made from the banisteriopsis vine. Ayahuasca is addictive and overdose can lead to death in extreme cases. People have claimed to gain a sort of spiritual enlightenment when they take it.

Tianna

Ketamine is considered a dissociative drug which means that it can give the feeling that the mind is separated from the body. Ketamine is used for medicinal uses but is otherwise illegal.

This drug is used medicinally typically for surgery patients since it will cause the patient to forget about the surgery, is fast acting, and gives pain relief. It non-competitively blocks the receptor N-methyl-D-aspartate for this reason it can help control depression and suicidal thoughts. It is also used by veterinarians for surgeries.

Ketamine can be addictive but under doctor supervision it is rare. Addiction to Ketamine is easy to spot because the addict will have loss of coordination, drowsiness, and slurred speech. If someone is addicted to Ketamine weaning the person off of the drug is hard because the person often forgets when they last took the drug. Withdraw symptoms are not as severe as other drug's withdraw symptoms.

Death because of a Ketamine overdose is rare but when combined with other drugs this drug can lead to death. Generally Ketamine causes people to loose consciousness, forget what happened when under the drugs influence, have decreased feeling of pain, and have hallucinations.

https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/substance-use/controlled-illegal-drugs/ketamine.html

https://www.drugs.com/illicit/ketamine.html

https://americanaddictioncenters.org/ketamine-abuse

Shayna