engaging in argument from evidence

Strategies to promote Belonging with Argumentation:

When engaging in argument students must feel comfortable sharing their thoughts without fear of judgment. This means any discourse around an idea must be focused on the idea itself and not the person. Students should be encouraged to use language they are comfortable in while in initial thinking stages. In addition, there should be set norms, structures and even scripts in place to facilitate constructive argument. Lastly, during group discussions, keep an eye on students for possible individual or cultural differences. Using non-direct discussion (posters, fishbowl, stickies, etc.) can help alleviate some of the tension from these differences. To learn more visit here.

Strategies to promote Confidence with Argumentation:

It is common for students to lack confidence in science argumentation based on the general reinforcement they have received when making claims. Confidence can be supported in a number of ways. Argumentation and claim-evidence-reasoning is an excellent time to collaborate with an ELA teacher around supports and scaffolds especially around writing and vocabulary. In addition, students can be scaffolded in a number of ways including organizers, sentence starters, anchor charts, and even different challenge levels based on need. Lastly, students should be given ample opportunity to revise their argument based on new information- claims can always be adjusted and there is no such thing as ‘wrong’ as long as there is evidentiary support. To learn more visit here.

Learning Orientation for Argumentation:

“The purpose of argumentation in science and engineering is to come to a consensus on explanations, models, data analysis, interpretations, and other artifacts of engaging in science and engineering practices. (M-Plans)” When students develop their own argument, there is the possibility that they will take critique personally so a learning orientation must be developed to separate the person from the idea. Having a proper learning orientation means students will listen to each other open mindedly and are open to adjusting their own arguments based on new information. Some ways that this can be done is through using clear and appropriate rubrics and scoring criteria, this will help students focus on the content instead of a person. In addition, providing students with scripts for how to engage in argument can help develop the language skills associated. Lastly, asking students to consider multiple perspectives or alternative arguments can help students to better understand that there is no one right answer. To learn more visit here.

Supporting Autonomy in Argumentation:

Science is so often seen as objective and “fact” so it is important that students see the importance of argumentation between different claims based on evidence. Scientific understanding is developed as part of a pretty social process of sharing, replicating and presenting feedback. Students should participate in this same process with each other. To develop autonomy make sure to consistently ask questions to make choices based on the presented/collected evidence. They aren’t just ‘picking’ a claim, they are diligently analyzing and evaluating. It is important for students to be given explicit direction in questioning stems to help in individual/group conversations. Lastly, structuring group activities where all students have a role will help develop individual skill. For example in a debate, one partner can collect external evidence and the other may collect classroom data while another can consider counterarguments. To learn more visit here.

Supporting Relevance in Argumentation:

Students are arguing about any number of things on basically a daily basis so it is important in the science classroom to emphasize the use of evidence when making claims. We see evidence-less claims all around us all the time these days so this skill is essential to master. Students can practice doing this on smaller scales early in their schooling building up to fully independent debates. That journey should include plenty of phenomena that connects to students’ lives, examples of arguments in history that lead to scientific understanding, and hearing about the experiences of others.
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Standard Name: HS-ESS3-2 Earth and Human Activity

Standard: Evaluate competing design solutions for developing, managing, and utilizing energy and mineral resources based on cost-benefit ratios.

Observable Features of Student Performance by the end of the Course: 

1. Supported claims

• Students describe the nature of the problem each design solution addresses. 

• Students identify the solution that has the most preferred cost-benefit ratios.

2. Identifying scientific evidence

• Students identify evidence for the design solutions, including: 

  • • Societal needs for that energy or mineral resource; 

    • The cost of extracting or developing the energy reserve or mineral resource; 

    • The costs and benefits of the given design solutions; and 

    • The feasibility, costs, and benefits of recycling or reusing the mineral resource, if applicable.

3. Evaluation and critique

• Students evaluate the given design solutions, including: 

  • • The relative strengths of the given design solutions, based on associated economic, environmental, and geopolitical costs, risks, and benefits; 

    • The reliability and validity of the evidence used to evaluate the design solutions; and

    • Constraints, including cost, safety, reliability, aesthetics, cultural effects environmental effects.

4. Reasoning/synthesis

• Students use logical arguments based on their evaluation of the design solutions, costs and benefits, empirical evidence, and scientific ideas to support one design over the other(s) in their evaluation.

• Students describe that a decision on the “best” solution may change over time as engineers and scientists work to increase the benefits of design solutions while decreasing costs and risks.

Standard Name: HS-ESS2-7 Earth's Systems

Standard: Construct an argument based on evidence about the simultaneous coevolution of Earth’s systems and life on Earth.

Observable Features of Student Performance by the end of the Course: 

1. Developing the claim 

• • Students develop a claim, which includes the following idea: that there is simultaneous coevolution of Earth's systems and life on Earth. This claim is supported by generalizing from multiple sources of evidence.

2. Identifying scientific evidence

• • Students identify and describe* evidence supporting the claim, including:

    • • Scientific explanations about the composition of Earth’s atmosphere shortly after its formation; 

      • Current atmospheric composition; 

      • Evidence for the emergence of photosynthetic organisms; 

      • Evidence for the effect of the presence of free oxygen on evolution and processes in other Earth systems;

      • In the context of the selected example(s), other evidence that changes in the biosphere affect other Earth systems.

3. Evaluating and critiquing

• • Students evaluate the evidence and include the following in their evaluation: 

    • • A statement regarding how variation or uncertainty in the data (e.g., limitations, low signal-to-noise ratio, collection bias, etc.) may affect the usefulness of the data as sources of evidence; and 

      • The ability of the data to be used to determine causal or correlational effects between changes in the biosphere and changes in Earth’s other systems.

4. Reasoning and synthesis 

• • Students use at least two examples to construct oral and written logical arguments. The examples:

    • • Include that the evolution of photosynthetic organisms led to a drastic change in Earth’s atmosphere and oceans in which the free oxygen produced caused worldwide deposition of iron oxide formations, increased weathering due to an oxidizing atmosphere and the evolution of animal life that depends on oxygen for respiration; and 

      • Identify causal links and feedback mechanisms between changes in the biosphere and changes in Earth’s other systems.

Standard Name: HS-ESS1-5 Earth's Place in the Universe

Standard: Evaluate evidence of the past and current movements of continental and oceanic crust and the theory of plate tectonics to explain the ages of crustal rocks.

Observable Features of Student Performance by the end of the Course: 

1. Identifying the given explanation and the supporting evidence

• Students identify the given explanation, which includes the following idea: that crustal materials of different ages are arranged on Earth’s surface in a pattern that can be attributed to plate tectonic activity and formation of new rocks from magma rising where plates are moving apart.

2. Students identify the given evidence to be evaluated.

• Identifying any potential additional evidence that is relevant to the evaluation

• Students identify and describe* additional relevant evidence (in the form of data, information, models, or other appropriate forms) that was not provided but is relevant to the explanation and to evaluating the given evidence, including: 

  • • Measurement of the ratio of parent to daughter atoms produced during radioactive decay as a means for determining the ages of rocks; 

    • Ages and locations of continental rocks;

    • Ages and locations of rocks found on opposite sides of mid-ocean ridges; and

    • The type and location of plate boundaries relative to the type, age, and location of crustal rocks.

3. Evaluating and critiquing

• Students use their additional evidence to assess and evaluate the validity of the given evidence. b Students evaluate the reliability, strengths, and weaknesses of the given evidence along with its ability to support logical and reasonable arguments about the motion of crustal plates.

4. Reasoning/synthesis

• Students describe how the following patterns observed from the evidence support the explanation about the ages of crustal rocks: 

  • • The pattern of the continental crust being older than the oceanic crust; 

    • The pattern that the oldest continental rocks are located at the center of continents, with the ages decreasing from their centers to their margin; and

    • the pattern that the ages of oceanic crust are greatest nearest the continents and decrease in age with proximity to the mid-ocean ridges.

• Students synthesize the relevant evidence to describe* the relationship between the motion of continental plates and the patterns in the ages of crustal rocks, including that:

  • • At boundaries where plates are moving apart, such as mid-ocean ridges, material from the interior of the Earth must be emerging and forming new rocks with the youngest ages. 

    • The regions furthest from the plate boundaries (continental centers) will have the oldest rocks because new crust is added to the edge of continents at places where plates are coming together, such as subduction zones. 

    • The oldest crustal rocks are found on the continents because oceanic crust is constantly being destroyed at places where plates are coming together, such as subduction zones.

Standard Name: HS-LS4-5 Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity

Standard: Evaluate the evidence supporting claims that changes in environmental conditions may result in (1) increases in the number of individuals of some species, (2) the emergence of new species over time, and (3) the extinction of other species.

Observable Features of Student Performance by the end of the Course: 

1. Identifying the given claims and evidence to be evaluated

• Students identify the given claims, which include the idea that changes in environmental conditions may result in: 

  • • Increases in the number of individuals of some species; 

    • The emergence of new species over time; and 

    • The extinction of other species.

• Students identify the given evidence to be evaluated.

2. Identifying any potential additional evidence that is relevant to the evaluation

• Students identify and describe* additional evidence (in the form of data, information, models, or other appropriate forms) that was not provided but is relevant to the claims and to evaluating the given evidence, including:

  • • Data indicating the change over time in:

    • The number of individuals in each species; 

    • The number of species in an environment; and

    • The environmental conditions.

• Environmental factors that can determine the ability of individuals in a species to survive and reproduce

3. Evaluating and critiquing

• Students use their additional evidence to assess the validity, reliability, strengths, and weaknesses of the given evidence, along with its ability to support logical and reasonable arguments about the outcomes of group behavior.

• Students assess the ability of the given evidence to be used to determine causal or correlational effects between environmental changes, the changes in the number of individuals in each species, the number of species in an environment, and/or the emergence or extinction of species.

4. Reasoning and synthesis

• Students evaluate the degree to which the given empirical evidence can be used to construct logical arguments that identify causal links between environmental changes and changes in the number of individuals or species based on environmental factors that can determine the ability of individuals in a species to survive and reproduce.

Standard Name: HS-LS3-2 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

Standard: Make and defend a claim based on evidence that inheritable genetic variations may result from (1) new genetic combinations through meiosis, (2) viable errors occurring during replication, and/or (3) mutations caused by environmental factors.

Observable Features of Student Performance by the end of the Course: 

1. Developing a claim

• Students make a claim that includes the idea that inheritable genetic variations may result from: 

  • • New genetic combinations through meiosis; 

    • Viable errors occurring during replication; and 

    • Mutations caused by environmental factors.

2. Identifying scientific evidence

• Students identify and describe evidence that supports the claim, including: 

  • • Variations in genetic material naturally result during meiosis when corresponding sections of chromosome pairs exchange places. 

• Genetic mutations can occur due to: a) errors during replication; and/or b) environmental factors.

• Genetic material is inheritable.

• Students use scientific knowledge, literature, student-generated data, simulations and/or other sources for evidence. 

3. Evaluating and critiquing evidence

• Students identify the following strengths and weaknesses of the evidence used to support the claim: 

  • • Types and numbers of sources;

    • Sufficiency to make and defend the claim, and to distinguish between causal and correlational relationships; and 

    • Validity and reliability of the evidence. 

4. Reasoning and synthesis

• Students use reasoning to describe* links between the evidence and claim, such as:

  • • Genetic mutations produce genetic variations between cells or organisms. 

    • Genetic variations produced by mutation and meiosis can be inherited.

• Students use reasoning and valid evidence to describe that new combinations of DNA can arise from several sources, including meiosis, errors during replication, and mutations caused by environmental factors.

• Students defend a claim against counter-claims and critique by evaluating counter-claims and by describing* the connections between the relevant and appropriate evidence and the strongest claim. 

Standard Name: HS-LS2-8 Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

Standard: Evaluate evidence for the role of group behavior on individual and species’ chances to survive and reproduce.

Observable Features of Student Performance by the end of the Course: 

1. Identifying the given explanation and the supporting evidence

• Students identify the given explanation that is supported by the evidence to be evaluated, and which includes the following idea: Group behavior can increase the chances for an individual and a species to survive and reproduce. 

• Students identify the given evidence to be evaluated. 

2. Identifying any potential additional evidence that is relevant to the evaluation 

• Students identify additional evidence (in the form of data, information, or other appropriate forms) that was not provided but is relevant to the explanation and to evaluating the given evidence, and which includes evidence for causal relationships between specific group behaviors (e.g., flocking, schooling, herding, cooperative hunting, migrating, swarming) and individual survival and reproduction rates. 

3. Evaluating and critiquing 

• Students use their additional evidence to assess the validity, reliability, strengths, and weaknesses of the given evidence along with its ability to support logical and reasonable arguments about the outcomes of group behavior.

• Students evaluate the given evidence for the degree to which it supports a causal claim that group behavior can have a survival advantage for some species, including how the evidence allows for distinguishing between causal and correlational relationships, and how it supports cause and effect relationships between various kinds of group behavior and individual survival rates (for example, the relationship between moving in a group and individual survival rates, compared to the survival rate of individuals of the same species moving alone or outside of the group).

Standard Name: HS-PS4-3 Waves and their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer

Standard: Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model, and that for some situations one model is more useful than the other.

Observable Features of Student Performance by the end of the Course: 

1. Identifying the given explanation and associated claims, evidence, and reasoning 

• Students identify the given explanation that is to be supported by the claims, evidence, and reasoning to be evaluated, and that includes the following idea: Electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model, and for some situations one model is more useful than the other.

• Students identify the given claims to be evaluated.

• Students identify the given evidence to be evaluated, including the following phenomena:

  • • Interference behavior by electromagnetic radiation; and 

    • The photoelectric effect. 

• Students identify the given reasoning to be evaluated.

2. Evaluating given evidence and reasoning

• Students evaluate the given evidence for interference behavior of electromagnetic radiation to determine how it supports the argument that electromagnetic radiation can be described by a wave model.

• Students evaluate the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect to determine how it supports the argument that electromagnetic radiation can be described by a particle model.

• Students evaluate the given claims and reasoning for modeling electromagnetic radiation as both a wave and particle, considering the transfer of energy and information within and between systems, and why for some aspects the wave model is more useful and for other aspects the particle model is more useful to describe the transfer of energy and information.