Embedded Files
Professional:
Professional:
I can write with appropriate style and grammar for my genre, audience, and purpose:
Literary devices and figurative language
Diction (word choice) and word connotation (word use)
Rhetorical devices and persuasive techniques
Grammatical syntax and sentence structure
Master:
Master:
I can purposefully manipulate style and standard grammar to enhance my idea and impact the audience.
Quick Links
Quick Links
For this target, with ALL writing you will need to:
For this target, with ALL writing you will need to:
Create an appropriate style for your topic, purpose, audience, and genre to include:
Using literary devices to enhance meaning for the audience
Choosing your words purposefully (and avoiding others)
Using rhetorical devices and being persuasive when necessary
Manipulating grammar and sentence structure to support meaning
Punctuation (commas, apostrophes, semicolons, colons, and other punctuation marks)
Sentence parts (independent clauses, subject-verb agreement, and run-ons/comma splices)
Phrases and Clauses (punctuating them, using parallel structure)
Parts of speech (Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs and Verbals, Adjectives, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions)
Style
Style
Just like the authors we read, YOU have STYLE when you write. However, learning to carefully and deliberately manipulate DICTION (word choice), SYNTAX (sentence structure), LITERARY DEVICES, and use of RHETORICAL DEVICES to influence your audience takes time and LOTS of practice. A focus on improving STYLE is what will take your writing from satisfactory to impressive. The best way to become a better writer is to READ often and notice strategies different authors use to get their message across…in other words, ANNOTATE for and analyze R3! Then, start trying some of these strategies yourself in your own writing. The TONE and VOICE you create through careful choice of words, sentences, and devices will make your writing uniquely yours.
Some things to consider when thinking about your style:
Some things to consider when thinking about your style:
Style and Voice- You should have an appropriate style (tone, diction, syntax, structure) and voice for your purpose and your audience. It is important to think about your audience ahead of time so you make the best choices. You should include appropriate devices and vocabulary, being careful to choose the appropriate connotation for your purpose.
GENRE- Considering the prompt/assignment, select an unexpected GENRE to make your ideas clear. Write a letter or email to a specific audience. Write a news article or blog pos. Use multiple genres.
Adding Literary Devices
Adding Literary Devices
EXTENDED METAHPOR- Establish a comparison in your HOOK, weave the pieces of this comparison through your BODY paragraphs by alluding to the different pieces; then, unveil the most important and meaningful part of the comparison in your CONCLUSION. Compare a situation to a physical task such as completing a puzzle with multiple pieces. Compare the overall emotion you want your reader to feel with a tangible object that has multiple parts such as a flower, a car, or a house.
STYLE SHOWCASE- The HOOK and the CONCLUSION are the two places in an essay that are solely dedicated to impressing your reader. Use these parts to be creative and take risks with your writing style. Use original and meaningful figurative language. Be offensive for a purpose. Use dialogue. Use sentence fragments and/or advanced punctuation
Choosing your WOrds
Choosing your WOrds
PERSONAL PATTERNS-Identify patterns you notice in the way you write. If these patterns help your overall style, leave them alone, but if they make your writing repetitive, boring, or vague, change them! Do you tend to use the same word/phrases to start/end your sentences/paragraphs? Do you use the same transitions over and over again? Are the majority of your sentences long or short? Do you lean on the same sentence structures all the time?
SPECIFIC VERBS- Identify the main verbs in each sentence. Replace any that are vague or passive with specific, active verbs and a CONNOTATION that works to convey the TONE you want to establish. Use a thesaurus to help you find other words you know but were unable to think of in the moment.
SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION- Identify places in your writing that would benefit from additional description to reinforce your TONE and PURPOSE. Add specific adjectives/adverbs with the correct CONNOTATION. Use a dictionary/thesaurus to help you find specific words.
Banned Words and Phrases
Banned Words and Phrases
Do NOT use vague language. You should use specific language to be the most direct and concise. The following is a list of words that you should avoid and some synonyms to use instead.
A LOT- Instead use: abundant, countless, numerous, prolific, ample, bountiful
A LITTLE- Instead use: insubstantial, scarce, insufficient, minimal, short of, least, slight, rare, limited, scant, sparse
ANYWAY(s) or REGARDLESS- Instead use: however, nonetheless, in other words, notwithstanding, on the other hand, even so, including, nevertheless, certainly, rather, with this in mind
AMAZING, FANTASTIC, WONDERFUL- Instead use: staggering, unforeseen, unexpected, overwhelming, startling, remarkable, unanticipated, brilliant, impressive, extraordinary
BAD- Instead use: defective, of poor quality, corrupt, deficient, improper, deplorable, spoiled, depraved, harmful, inferior, substandard, faulty, disagreeable
GOOD- Instead use: distinct, sound, superior, notable, prime, select, accomplished, exemplary, note-worthy, striking, fit, high quality, premium, unprecedented, exact, complete
BASICALLY or JUST- Instead use: essentially, in due course, chiefly, eventually, mainly, initially, ultimately
BIG- Instead use: ample, grand, broad, expansive, sizable, vast, spacious
SMALL- Instead use: minute, cramped, limited, petite, diminutive
CRAZY- Instead use: foolish, nonsensical, absurd, playful, comical, wild, surprising, unexpected, unprecedented
FEEL, SEEM, THINK- Instead use: appear, have the impression of, look, show signs of, reason, contemplate, reflect, consider, deliberate, ponder, anticipate, expect, plan, intend, imagine, suppose, assume, understand, appreciate, recognize
GET- Instead use: secure, fetch, accumulate, gain, acquire, gather, collect, obtain, derive, procure
GO- Instead use: move, proceed, advance, progress, pass, travel, depart, operate, exit
HAPPY- Instead use: thrilled, delighted, satisfied, upbeat, confident, euphoric, hopeful, joyful, lively, content, optimistic, cheerful, pleased
SAD- Instead use: somber, bleak, discouraged, lonely, unfortunate, dejected, mournful, sorrowful, grievous, desolate, sullen
INTERESTING- Instead use: captivating, enchanting, absorbing, attractive, challenging, engaging, involving, tempting, consuming, lively, provocative, inspiring, curious, intriguing
BORING- Instead use: colorless, flat, repetitious, commonplace, mundane, routine, tiring, drab, tame, trite, lifeless, tedious, stale
NOWADAYS- Instead use: in present time, presently, today, currently, in the current climate, now, in contrast with the past, at the moment (but it is always better to be specific with a time frame)
PROBABLY- Instead use: certainly, surely, undoubtedly, unquestionably, undeniably, doubtless, indeed, indisputably, in all likelihood
REALLY, VERY- Instead use: In fact, in truth, honestly, in reality, actually, genuinely, truly, sincerely, frankly, openly
SMART- Instead use: bright, intelligent, knowing, resourceful, sharp, clever, alert, imaginative, logical, creative, profound, astute, quick, wise
DUMB, STUPID- Instead use: inane, nonsensical, obtuse, simple, trivial, careless, illogical, mindless, cloudy, dull, ill-conceived, senseless, muddled, short-sighted, unreasonable
STUFF, THING- Instead use: object, article, item, artifact, commodity, property, equipment, gear, quality, attribute, trait, feature, aspect, facet, point, issue, fact
Other Phrases or Cliches to Avoid
Other Phrases or Cliches to Avoid
agree to disagree
dead as a doornail
last but not least
since the beginning of time
Creating Strong Rhetoric and Persuasion
Creating Strong Rhetoric and Persuasion
RHETORICAL DEVICES- Identify places in your writing that would benefit from the addition of a specific rhetorical device. Do not just add one for the sake of adding it, however. Whatever you choose should complement the CONTENT of your ideas. Use your R3 Page to figure out which devices might work best.
Crafting Grammar & Sentence Structure
Crafting Grammar & Sentence Structure
Sentence Types and Structures
Sentence Types and Structures
Sentences can be written many different ways, and each one creates a different tone for your reader. It is important to understand the grammatical structures that can create different sentence types so that you can vary them, choosing wisely.
STRUCTURE- Break out of the formula! In conjunction with specific DICTION and varied SYNTAX, manipulate the overall STRUCTURE of your writing to impact your reader emotionally. Mix up the C and E of ACES (for example, AECECS or ACECES). Stack your CITATIONS to overwhelm the audience with support/evidence before going into your EXPLANATION. When writing an argument, use mainly REFUTATION instead of CONFIRMATION.
The 4 Sentence Types
The 4 Sentence Types
Declarative
Declarative
Definition: A statement
Example(s): Mrs. Morse is my favorite teacher.
Why you'd use it: This is the sentence type that is used for most occasions. It should make up 90-99% of formal writing.
Imperative
Imperative
Definition: A command
Example(s): Everybody write!
Why you'd use it: Imperatives are used in dialogue and to engage your reader. They can be especially useful in persuasive writing to call your reader to action. They make good hooks and lasting thoughts and can also occasionally work your paragraphs.
Interrogative
Interrogative
Definition: A question
Example(s): Why is Mrs. Wood your favorite teacher?
Why you'd use it: Interrogatives are important when questioning an idea, or engaging your reader to think about the topic more. Rhetorical questions are the most popular in formal, persuasive writing.
Exclamatory
Exclamatory
Definition: Expressive sentence (cry of surprise, anger, happiness, etc.)
Example(s): Yes! I got an A on my grammar summative!
Why you'd use it: Exclamatory remarks are used occasionally, or else they use their impact. They make great hooks or lasting thoughts. They are used more often in narrative writing.
The 4 Interrogatives
The 4 Interrogatives
Source: http://www.k12reader.com/interrogative-sentences/The 4 Sentence Types
Yes/No
Yes/No
Definition:The question can be answered with a Yes or No.
Example(s): Would you like to practice grammar
Why you'd Use it: In your writing, you may want to ask the reader these simple questions to get them on your side. They don’t require a lot of thinking or options, so you can more likely predict the outcome.
Alternative
Alternative
Definition: The question offers an alternative choice.
Example(s): Would you like to practice grammar or analyze reading?
Why you'd use it: These simple questions can also work to get your reader on our side by offering them your solution and a less desirable one. These are also easier to predict the outcome.
Open-Ended
Open-Ended
Definition: A question whose answer can be simple or complex, but not offered in the question.
Example(s): What do you like most about grammar
Why you'd use it: These questions are less predictable, so should be used carefully. They are best used in your writing to introduce your reader to large, moral dilemmas. Rhetorical Questions are good uses of this question.
Tag questions
Tag questions
Definition: Questions added to the end of a statement used to confirm or deny.
Example(s): Would you like to practice grammar?
Why you'd use it: Tag questions attach themselves to the end of a statement. These make good additions to hooks or conclusions. They affirm or deny what you are already telling them. They are predictable.
The 4 Syntax Types
The 4 Syntax Types
***NOTE: all sentence types are based on number of clauses. They can all contain unlimited phrases.
Simple
Simple
Definition: 1 independent clause
Example(s):
Mrs. Morse is my favorite teacher.
Despite my attempts, Mrs. Wood is my favorite teacher.
Despite my attempts to not like her, Mrs. Morse is my favorite teacher.
Why you'd use it: This is one of the most common sentence types. They are not always short since they can have unlimited phrases as long as there is only one independent clause. These are direct and easy for your reader to follow.
Compound
Compound
Definition: 2 or more independent clauses
Example(s):
Mrs. Wood is my favorite teacher; she is so funny.
I have tried to not like her, but Mrs. Morse is my favorite teacher.
Despite my attempts to not like her, Mrs. Wood is my favorite teacher; she is so funny.
Why you'd use it: Compound sentences allow you to add more detail in your writing and keep your ideas flowing. However, mode of combining the clauses should be carefully selected to maximize the purpose. Also, make sure not to use too many or it can lead to rambling.
Complex
Complex
Definition: 1 independent clause & 1 or more dependent clauses
Example(s):
Mrs. Morse is my favorite teacher because she is so funny.
Even though I have tried to not like her, Mrs. Wood is my favorite teacher because she is so funny.
Despite my attempts to not like her, Mrs. Morse is my favorite teacher because she is so funny.
Why you'd use it: Complex sentences also allow for more detail and fluency for your reader, AND create more specific relationships. Beginning with a dependent clause (periodic sentence) can be especially effective because it builds to the main idea, creating more suspense. Again, just be careful to use them purposefully.
Compound- Complex
Compound- Complex
Definition: 2 or more independent clauses & 1 or more dependent clauses
Example(s):
Even though I really love math, Mrs. Wood is my favorite teacher; she is so funny.
I have tried to not like her, but Mrs. Morse is my favorite teacher because she is so funny.
Despite my attempts to not like her, Mrs. Wood is my favorite teacher because she is so funny, so I am really thankful I stuck out her class.
Why you'd use it: Because compound-complex sentences have so many pieces, they can often be confusing to the reader. The should be used purposefully to mimic a long and building thought. Too many of these together will be confusing for the reader, but they can be very effective if used well.
Editing Checklist
Editing Checklist
CAPITALIZATION
Proper nouns [names, places, titles, “I”]
First word of each new sentence
SPELLING
I have identified and checked my spelling for words that I typically have trouble with
PUNCTUATION
Apostrophes [‘]
Colons [:]
Commas [,]
End punctuation [. ? !]
Quotation marks [“”]
Semi-colons [;]
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
I use sentences that:
are complete [no run-ons/comma splices or fragments]
WORD USAGE
Homophones [there, their, they’re, etc.]
Pronouns match the nouns they replace
Verbs match subject [singular or plural?]
Consistent verb tense
I use words that:
are modified the correct part of speech
Grammar
Grammar
Punctuation
Punctuation
Punctuation is so important in telling your reader what you mean. Punctuation lets your reader know where your main ideas are, what details are most important, and helps create tone. Punctuating incorrectly will create confusion for your reader and ultimately undermine your intention. Just look at the letter below.
Punctuation is what gives your words fluency and tone. Misplaced punctuation can be devastating, while advanced punctuation can show style. Apostrophes, semicolons, and colons are some of the most misused marks. Use the guides below to learn their rules.
Putting the punctuation in different places completely changes the intent. Make sure you are using it effectively and purposefully. Look below at the common mistakes that people make when punctuating.
Dear Mrs. Morse,
I want a teacher who knows what grammar is all about. You are knowledgeable, understanding, and helpful. Teachers who are not like you admit to being inferior. You have ruined me for other grammar teachers. I demand to have you every year. I would be depressed without you. I would grow with your mentorship. Will you let me be your student?
Marcus
Dear Mrs. Morse,
I want a teacher who knows what grammar is. All about you are knowledgeable, understanding, and helpful teachers who are not like you. Admit to being inferior. You have ruined me. For other grammar teachers, I demand. To have you every year, I would be depressed. Without you, I would grow. With your mentorship, will you let me be?
Your student, Marcus
Commas
Commas
The Golden Rule of Comma Usage:
The Golden Rule of Comma Usage:
Add commas in logical places. Use the rules below:
When using FANBOYS between two or more independent clauses-- word groups that could stand alone as separate sentences--a comma must precede the coordinating conjunction.
Nearly everyone has heard of Mrs. Morse and Mrs. Wood, but not everyone has been privy to their teaching.
Use a comma after a long introductory word group.
In the back corner of the east wing of GHS, we found the grammar mecca.
Use a comma after all items in a series.
Some favorite parts of my day are seeing Mrs. Morse, learning from her, and feeling like I am accomplished.
When two or more adjectives each modify a noun separately, and are not joined by "and," they are coordinate and a comma must be used between them.
Mrs. Wood is a strong, educated woman who has taught me so much
*However, adjectives that do not modify the noun separately are cumulative and do not need a comma between them.*
Several new students found their way to our classrooms.
Use commas to set off transitional expressions, parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, and contrasted elements.
Transitional expressions serve as bridges between sentences or parts of sentences. Some of these expressions are however, moreover, for example as a matter of fact, and in other words.
Every teacher is not considered equal; for example, Mrs. Morse is thought to be the best at teaching grammar.
Parenthetical expressions provide supplemental comments or information; they interrupt the flow of a sentence or appear as afterthoughts.
Teaching, as we can see, is done best by Mrs. Wood.
Absolute phrases, which modify a whole sentence, not just one word, should be set off with commas.
His grammar at last perfected, Chris received advanced mastery in his writing.
Contrasted elements beginning with words such as not and unlike are set off with commas.
Mrs. Wood, unlike Mrs. Morse, is very funny.
Use commas to set off nouns of direct address, the words "yes" and "no," interrogative tags, and mild interjections.
Nouns of direct address.
Forgive us, Mrs. Morse, for thinking grammar was uncool.
The words yes and no.
Yes, the grammar class was fascinating.
Interrogative tags:
This English class is the best I’ve ever had, isn't it?
Mild interjection:
Well, grammar is not always black and white.
Use commas with expressions such as he said, remarked, and wrote to set off direct quotations.
Mrs. Wood remarked, "You will find grammar everywhere you look."
Use commas with dates, addresses, titles, and numbers.
In dates, the year is set off from the rest of the sentence with a pair of commas.
On December 12, 2014, Mrs. Morse changed my world with grammatical knowledge
***Commas are not needed if only the month and the year are given or the date is inverted.***
January 2016 was the month I realized I was becoming a grammar expert.
The grammar plan goes into effect on 30 August 2017.
Addresses: The elements of an address or place name are followed by commas.
Mrs. Wood teaches in Woodbridge, Virginia, in 2017.
Titles: If a title follows a name, separate it from the rest of the sentence with a pair of commas.
Mrs. Morse, MA., performed the sentence dissection.
Numbers: In numbers more than four digits long, use commas to separate the numbers into groups of three, starting from the right.
3,500; 100,000; 5,000,000
Use a comma to prevent confusion.
If the writer has omitted a word or phrase, a comma may be needed to signal the omission.
To err is human; to perfect, Mrs. Wood.
If the same word appears twice in a row in the same sentence, a comma may be needed for ease of reading.
All the errors Mrs. Morse said would happen, happened.
Sometimes a comma is needed to prevent readers from grouping words in ways that do not match the writer's intention.
Students who can, proofread their work for correct grammar and mechanics.
Source: “The Complete Comma.” Christopher Newport University Writing Center. 2007. Print.
Comma Flow Chart.pdf
Apostrophes (')
Apostrophes (')
Use APOSTROPHES (‘) to show ownership or missing letters in a word (contraction)
RULE #1:
Apostrophes show ownership.
EXAMPLE:
Mrs. Wood’s classroom is the coolest.
*The classroom belongs to Mrs. Wood.
The classroom’s environment was conducive to learning.
*The classroom owns its environment.
The students’ attitudes were always positive.
*The attitudes belong to the students.
*Apostrophe goes at the end to show more than 1 student
COMMON MISTAKES:
Using a plural instead of possessive apostrophe…
*Mrs. Woods classroom is the coolest.
Using the possessive apostrophe, when it should just be plural…
*The student’s love to learn.
RULE #2:
Apostrophes show missing letters in a word (contraction).
EXAMPLE:
Sometimes, students don’t use correct grammar.
*Don’t = do not (missing second letter “o”)
“I’ve always had a deep appreciation for grammar,” said Mrs. Morse.
*I’ve = I have (missing the “ha”)
COMMON MISTAKES:
Leaving the apostrophe out.
*Students dont use correct grammar.
Putting the apostrophe in the wrong place…
*Iv’e always had a deep appreciation for grammar.
Semi-Colons (;)
Semi-Colons (;)
Use SEMICOLONS (;) to separate independent clauses or when too many commas cause confusion.
RULE #:
Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses.
EXAMPLE:
[Mrs. Morse is a great teacher]; [ her students pass the SOL.]
*Since both clauses are independent, the semicolon acts as a cross between a period (.) to separate them and a comma (,) to link them.
[The students adore Mrs. Wood for many reasons]; however, [they find her class to be challenging.]
*Since both clauses are independent, the semicolon acts as a cross between a period (.) to separate them and a comma (,) to link them.
COMMON MISTAKES:
Using a semicolon to separate an independent clause from a dependent clause or phrase…
*Because Mrs. Morse is a great teacher; her students pass the SOL.
*Early in the year; the students didn’t know much about grammar.
Confusing it with a colon…
*The students learn so much; grammar, writing, reading.
RULE #:
Use a semicolon to break up large chunks of information when too many commas make it confusing.
EXAMPLE:
Students learn grammar in Woodbridge, VA; Chicago, Illinois; and Jackson Hole, Wyoming.
*Because the cities and states in the list use a comma to separate them, there are already too many commas. The semicolons break up larger information.
The students found the massive amount of reading, not which was bad; the mandatory re-writes, although they did make their writing better; and the long grammar lessons, which also has made them better communicators.
*Because ideas in the list, there are already too many commas. The semicolons break up larger information.
COMMON MISTAKES:
Using it for smaller chunks of information…
*The students learn grammar; writing; reading.
Colons (:)
Colons (:)
Use COLONS (:) to begin a list, introduce an example/quotation, or clarify information.
ALWAYS use colons AFTER the independent clause.
RULE #1:
Use a colon to introduce a list.
EXAMPLE:
[Mrs. Morse loves only three things in life]: reading, writing, and grammar.
*The colon is placed after the independent clause to introduce a list
[The students adore Mrs. Wood for many reasons]: her wit, her intelligence, and her undying enthusiasm for grammar.
*The colon is placed after the independent clause to introduce a list
COMMON MISTAKES:
Using a colon before a list that is part of the independent clause…
*The students learn: grammar, writing, reading.
(the list actually acts as the direct objects, so they cannot be separated.)
RULE #2:
Use a colon to introduce an example or quotation.
EXAMPLE:
[Mrs. Wood’s most famous quote always rings true]: “Those who know grammar know more than the rest.”
*The colon is placed after the independent clause to introduce a quote or example
COMMON MISTAKES:
Using a colon before a quotation or example that is part of the independent clause…
*Mrs. Wood says: “Those who know grammar know more than the rest.”
(the quotation actually acts as the direct object, so it cannot be separated.)
RULE #3:
Use a colon to clarify information when it is too much for a comma.
EXAMPLE:
[Mrs. Morse teaches grammar for one simple reason]: [She wants to make her students better people].
*The “reason” is the second independent clause, so you don’t want to use a semi-colon or period.
[Mrs. Wood’s students have one favorite activity]: [They love learning grammar above all else].
*The “activity” is the second independent clause, so you don’t want to use a semi-colon or period.
COMMON MISTAKES:
Using a colon before a clarification that is not a full idea…
*Mrs. Morse teaches grammar for one simple reason: loving it.”
(“loving it” is just a phrase, so a comma would work just fine.)
RULE #4:
Use a colon to separate information.
EXAMPLE:
GHS Grammar Website: The Coolest Site Out There
*The colon is separating the two pieces of information about the site.
Act II: Scene iii
*The colon is separating the act and scene
Other Punctuation Marks
Other Punctuation Marks
What Is a Sentence?
What Is a Sentence?
Independent Clause/Main Idea
Independent Clause/Main Idea
Basically, a complete sentence. Every sentence is broken down into main ideas/independent clauses and details. The details can be removed from a sentence, but the main idea/independent clause cannot. A sentence needs three things to be complete.
1. Subject (noun/pronoun that is performing an action)
2. Main verb (the action that is being performed by the subject)
3. A complete thought (able to stand on its own)
4. **SOMETIMES**: Object(s)/Complement(s) (nouns/pronouns that complete the thought—cannot be removed)
A Fragment is an incomplete thought. It is missing one of the above requirements.
Subjects: Answer the question “who/what is the main idea of this sentence?” The answer should be a noun or pronoun and all the modifiers that go with it. If you are having problems finding it, you can always look for the main verb first. The subject is the person or thing that is doing the main verb.
Main Verb: Fill in the blanks, “The _Sub._ is doing _M.V._.” Or you can do it the other way around. Find verb and ask who/what is doing it (subject) and is it the main idea of the sentence. The main verb ONLY contains verbs and can be up to four verbs long (ex: At 2pm, I will have been running for 20 minutes.) Don’t forget about your linking verbs!
Complement/Object: Whatever is needed past the subject and verb JUST to finish the thought.
Mrs. Morse teaches.
The sentence is about “Mrs. Morse” (subject) and “Mrs. Morse” is “teaching” (verb). It is a complete thought without a complement.
She is fun
to be around.The sentence is about “she” (subject) and she “is” (verb). “fun” (complement) is necessary to complete the thought. However, you do not need “to be around” (detail).
The interesting grammar unit was taught
to me.The action in this sentence is “was taught” (verb) and the “unit” (subject), including all its modifiers, is what was taught. “To me” is a detail that can be removed and still make sense.
Susie and John enjoy Mrs. Wood’s class.
“Susie and John” (subject) are both the ones who “enjoy” (verb) “Mrs. Wood’s class” (object), which is necessary to complete the thought.
While I was listening, the grammar was taught.“While I was listening” is not needed to complete the thought. It just adds detail, so it is not part of the independent clause. “The grammar” (subject) is what “was taught” (main verb).
There is an awesome teacher
in English classIf the sentence starts with the words “here” or “there,” the subject is past the verb. You can rearrange the sentence in order of S+MV+C/O An awesome teacher is there. “In English class” is a detail explaining more clearly where “there” is.
Learn grammar.
This sentence has an implied “you” subject (an imperative command) because it is implied that the person the sentence is directed at is the one who is doing the “learn”ing. “Grammar” is the object or thing that is learned.
I like writing, but my friend likes reading.
This sentence has 2 independent clauses because there are 2 sets of subjects and verbs. “I” (subject) “like” (main verb) and “my friend” (subject) “likes” (main verb).
Mrs. Wood teaches and lectures about grammar.
This sentence has two main verbs since the subject, “Mrs. Wood,” is doing 2 things, “teaches” and “lectures.”
Learning grammar is exciting and challenging.
“Exciting and challenging” are both the complements that finish the thought of what “learning grammar” (subject) “is” (main verb).
The most important part about grammar is understanding the difference between independent clauses/main ideas and details. If you cannot do this, you will not make any sense to your audience. Ultimately, you want to keep your main idea/independent clause together. You should never separate any part of the independent clause with a comma or other punctuation, unless it is separating out an interrupting phrase.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
The subject of the sentence has to agree in number with the main verb.
Nouns and verbs can be either singular or plural. When they are paired together as a subject and verb, they have to take the same number (singular or plural). Usually, you can hear the match and you do this easily, but occasionally, the subject is tricky and causes you to choose the wrong verb number.
Figuring out the number of the subject:
Identify the subject of the sentence, and count how many nouns are part of it. Sometimes, it can be hard though. Use the following chart to help you if you aren’t sure.
Singular Subjects
Singular Subjects
he
she
it
anyone
no one
nobody
everyone
someone
everybody
each
every
one
either/or
another
neither/or
Plural Subjects
Plural Subjects
____s
____ and _____
both
many
others
several
few
fewer
Either Singular or Plural Subjects
Either Singular or Plural Subjects
they
none
some
all
collective nouns
___ OR ___ (choose closest to verb)
more
most
any
Singular vs. Plural Verbs
Singular vs. Plural Verbs
Verbs are harder to figure out because usually an "S" at the end of the verb actually makes it singular (opposite of nouns). There are also irregular verbs.
Example:
He runs ("runs" is singular because it has an "s" at the end)
The easiest way is to play it by ear- does the verb sounds better with "it" (singular) or "they" (plural).
Example:
It is... ("is" is singular because it sounds better with "it")
They are. ("are" is plural because it sounds better with "they")
You can also use the rule of 1s. But this doesn't always work with pronouns and irregular verbs.
Example:
He runs.
The kids run.
Run-Ons
Run-Ons
Run-ons
Run-ons
Run-ons are NOT really long sentences. A run-on is two independent clauses/main ideas that are not separated effectively. Having multiple main ideas in a sentence can become confusing, but sometimes it is necessary. Make sure There are four ways to separate independent clauses other than using a period. EXAMPLE:
My favorite class is English and it is very fun and informative.
**This one sentence actually contains two independent clauses/main ideas.
Ways to Correct a Run-On Sentence:
Ways to Correct a Run-On Sentence:
(Other than separating them with a period)
You could use a comma AND a coordinating conjunction (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So):
My favorite class is English, for it is very fun and informative.
My favorite class is English, and it is very fun and informative.
A comma by itself is not strong enough to separate two main ideas and neither is a coordinating conjunction. However, TOGETHER, they can separate the ideas. You would choose this option when you need to show how the two ideas relate to one another. This is the most common technique.
**You CANNOT simply add a comma between the two sentences, or you'll end up with what's called a "comma splice." Here's an example of a comma splice: EXAMPLE: My favorite class is English, it is very fun and informative.
You could use a subordinating conjunction (changing an independent clause to a dependent):
My favorite class is English because it is very fun and informative.
Because it is very fun and informative, my favorite class is English.
Changing an independent clause to dependent means you no longer have a run-on sentence. However, it does make the dependent idea less important. You would choose this option if one idea is less important, or if you need to show the relationship between the two ideas. You may want to consider the order of the clauses to maximize your intent.
You could use a semicolon:
My favorite class is English; it is very fun and informative.
A semicolon is quite literally a midpoint between a comma (,- pause) and a period (.-end). It signals the end of a main idea/independent clause, but also shows that the ideas are closely related and need to be considered together. You would choose this option when your sentence becomes too wordy or when you need it stylistically to contrast ideas or create tone.
You could use an em-dash (a long dash) for emphasis:
My favorite class is English— it is very fun and informative.
Using an em-dash is a stylistic choice that adds voice. It is an extended pause that indicates the moving of an idea. You would choose this option ONLY if you are constantly mastering content regularly and you are looking to enhance your voice as a writer.
Phrases & Clauses
Phrases & Clauses
Every grammar construct in the English language can be broken down into two categories: clauses and phrases. You already know what an independent clause is (S+ MV+ complete thought). It is the complete thought that makes the clause independent. A clause that is not independent, just lacks the complete thought. This clause is called a dependent clause or a subordinate clause. Anything that is not a clause, is a phrase. Both dependent/subordinate clauses and phrases must attach to an independent clause/main idea to make sense. Look below to see more.
Dependent/Subordinate Clause
Dependent/Subordinate Clause
Subject that does have a MV
Main Verb being completed by S
Incomplete thought without an independent clause/main idea
Phrase
Phrase
May have a noun and/or a verb, but they do not work together
Incomplete thought without an independent clause/main idea
Once you can determine if the details in a sentence are clauses or phrases, you need to determine their function. All constructs in a language serve a function and/or answer some question. Clauses and phrases can act as adverbs, adjectives, and nouns. Each one has its own description/name.
Phrases and Clauses.pdfPunctuating Phrases & CLauses
Punctuating Phrases & CLauses
Essential vs. Nonessential Phrases
The words themselves, “essential and nonessential,” explain the main difference in details. Some are necessary to understand the meaning, while others are added details that could be removed from the sentence without changing its substance or main idea.
Essential
Essential
Susie went with Sally to the movies.
Tommy learned about grammar.
She ran away from the rabid dog.
The teacher taught for 10 years at GHS.
Non-Essential
Non-Essential
Susie, along with Sally, went to the movies.
At school, Tommy learned grammar.
She, running from the dog, fell into the bushes.
The teacher taught English at GHS.
***As you might be noticing, essential phrases do NOT need commas to separate them from the main idea because they are part of the main idea. On the other hand, nonessential information does need commas to indicate it is a detail. Use the information below to decide where to place commas.***
Punctuating Nonessential Phrases
Punctuating Nonessential Phrases
There are three different placements for phrases: Introductory, Interrupting, and Concluding.
Introductory phrase: comes before the main idea of the sentence. If it is nonessential information, it needs a comma after it.
At the beginning of the school year, the students seem to be nervous about learning grammar.
Interrupting phrase: comes in between, or interrupts, the main idea of the sentence. If it is nonessential information, it needs a comma before and after it.
The students, at the beginning of the school year, seem to be nervous about learning grammar.
Concluding phrase: comes after the close of the sentence main idea. If it is just a prepositional phrase, it usually does not need a comma, even if it is nonessential (this is different with different types of phrases)
The students seem to be nervous about learning grammar at the beginning of the school year.
Exceptions:
You do NOT need a comma after a brief (fewer than 4 words) introductory prepositional phrase unless a pause is necessary for effect.
Without my work, I received a 0. --OR-- Without my work I received a 0.
If your prepositional phrase ends with a verbal noun/gerund, you ALWAYS need a comma.
After editing, my paper was done. --OR-- After editing my paper was done.
If the prepositional phrase is not really introductory, but rather out of order for effect, you LEAVE OUT the comma.
Down the rabbit hole they went. --OR-- Down the rabbit hole, they went.
Parallel Structure
Parallel Structure
Parallel sentences and items within a sentence follow the same format. You use parallelism for a number of reasons.
It is formal writing
It helps your reader process the information better, and it's easier to remember
You will develop your style
You should parallel lists within a sentence:
I like to read, write, and think.
NOT: I like reading, to write, and thinking.
I love lightly-toasted toast, scrambled eggs, and crispy bacon.
NOT: I love toast, scrambled eggs, and a lot of bacon.
You should keep items in the same format (don't mix):
I like books and paper.
NOT: I like books and to write.
You should keep the same number:
I travel to many conferences and presentations in a year.
NOT: I travel to many conferences and a presentation in a year.
You should keep the same parts of speech and topics.
The teacher quickly and humorously taught the students and happily gave them a pizza party.
NOT: The teacher quickly, and with humor, taught the students and ate pizza.
Verb Tense
Verb Tense
Verbs can have different tenses. Things can occur in the past, present, or future. However, there are even more tenses than that: simple, continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous. Use the chart below to see how tenses can be used.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Future Tense
Progressive Tense
Though they seem interchangeable, they actually mean something very different. Think about what contexts each of these tenses would be in.
Continuous: Discusses something that happened over a period of time.
I was studying grammar for a few months in 2015.
I am studying grammar this year.
I will be studying grammar in English next year.
Perfect: Discusses something that happened prior to a specific time in the past, present, or future.
Prior to the test last week, I had studied grammar the night before.
Prior to today’s test, I have studied grammar.
Prior to the test next week, I will have studied grammar.
Perfect Continuous: Discusses something that happened over a period of time prior to a specific time in the past, present, or future.
Prior to the test last week, I had been studying grammar for a month.
Prior to today’s test, I have been studying grammar for a month.
Prior to the test next week, I will have been studying grammar for a month.
***NOTE: When choosing a tense, it should be for a purpose. You should also keep the same tense throughout the same section of writing. Switching can be confusing for the reader and change the meaning of your writing.***
Active & passive Voice
Active & passive Voice
Is the subject doing the action or is the action happening to the compliment? An ACTIVE sentence is one where the ACTOR (person doing the action) is the subject. If the ACTOR is unknown or part of a detail phrase, this is PASSIVE.
Active Voice:
Active Voice:
This is the voice that you should be writing and speaking in most of the time. The subject is clearly performing the action (ACTOR) and is taking ownership of it.
Mrs. Morse teaches the students grammar.
In this sentence, it is clear who is doing the teaching (Mrs. Morse). The ACTOR is also the SUBJECT, so this is ACTIVE voice.
The students consider Mrs. Wood to be the best!
It is clear who is doing the considering (The students). Since the students are the ACTOR and the SUBJECT, this sentence is in ACTIVE voice.
Passive Voice:
Passive Voice:
This is the voice that should only be used for a purposeful style. The verb is always shown as a verb phrase using a “to be” verb and another verb. The subject is still there, but is not the actor of the verb. The compliment will NEVER be a direct or indirect object.
Grammar is taught.
In this sentence, the verb is taught, but who is doing the teaching? … not “grammar.” Since the subject is NOT the actor, this is passive voice. We do NOT know who the ACTOR is.
Mrs. Wood is considered the best teacher ever.
The verb is considered, but who is doing the considering? … not “Mrs. Wood.” Since the subject is NOT the actor, this is passive voice. We do NOT know who the ACTOR is.
Grammar is taught by Mrs. Morse.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase shows who is doing the teaching (Mrs. Morse). However, even though we know who the ACTOR is, “grammar” is still the subject. This is still passive.
Mrs. Wood is considered the best by everyone.
The prepositional phrase shows who is doing the considering (everyone). However, the subject is still “Mrs. Wood,” so, since the ACTOR is not the subject, it is a passive sentence.
There are 3 ways to determine if a sentence is PASSIVE. Choose the one that makes the most sense to you, but ALL three will be true if it is passive voice.
ACTOR SUBJECT: If the ACTOR (person performing the action) is NOT the SUBJECT, the sentence is passive.
EX: Sentences are written by students. (The verb is “are,” but who are? The students, which are not the subject.)
“To BE” + PAST: if the verb is a combination of “to be” and a past tense verb (usually –ed), it is passive.
EX: Sentences are written by students.
BY ZOMBIES: if you can add the prepositional phrase “by zombies” to the end of the sentence and it tells you who (zombies) performed
the action, it is passive.
EX: Sentences are written by zombies.
NOTE: if you don’t like zombies, replace them with another actor you like (Leonardo DiCaprio, Minions, Puff the Magic Dragon… it’s the ridiculousness that makes you remember, not the context)
Why would someone want to use the passive voice?
…to skirt blame.
No, my homework was not done (by me).
Yes, class was skipped that day (by me).
The notes were not written down (by me).
…when the actor is or should be a secret.
My notes were stolen (by whom? I don’t know).
The test was cheated on (by whom? I know, but I’m not saying).
My pencil was taken (by whom?).
All passive sentences can be re-written as active sentences, however.
No, my homework was not done. --> No, I did not do my homework.
Yes, class was skipped that day. --> Yes, I skipped class that day.
The notes were not written down. --> I did not write the notes down.
My pencil was taken. --> Someone took my pencil.
Capitalization
Capitalization
PARTS OF SPEECh
PARTS OF SPEECh
Nouns
Nouns
A noun is a part of speech that denotes a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. The English word noun has its roots in the Latin word nomen, which means “name.” Every language has words that are nouns. As you read the following explanations, think about some words that might fit into each category. Person, Animal , Place, Thing, Time, Event, Idea, Value
Collective Nouns
Collective Nouns
Nouns are can be either singular (one) or plural (more than one). They are normally easy to tell the difference because in a common noun, the plural will have an “s” on the send. However, there are times where a plural group is considered singular. These are called collective nouns.
Our class took a field trip to go see The Great Gatsby.
The herd of horses ran across the field.
The jury was ready to give their verdict.
GHS’s football team works hard to be the best.
The US’s army is one of the greatest in the world.
The council works hard to ensure equality for all.
He comes from a huge family.
The rock band has been on tour for months.
The GHS audience applauded loudly at the talent show.
The flock of seagulls chased us down the beach.
The pile of laundry was taking over the top level.
Common vs. Proper Nouns
Common vs. Proper Nouns
Some nouns are specific in title and are always capitalized. They are different from common nouns,
which refer to the general. These specific nouns are called “proper nouns.”
Common: I love my mother.
Proper: Mom, will you come pick me up?
Common: I am addicted to cookies.
Proper: Thin Mints are the most refreshing cookie.
Common: My friends go to the same school as me.
Proper: We all go to Gainesville High School.
Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns
Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns
Concrete nouns are to the point, where abstract nouns cover an idea or ideal that is intangible. Concrete nouns are something you can touch and see, where abstract nouns are concepts that can be subjective.
Concrete: eagle, rose, branch
Abstract: freedom, love, forgiveness
Compound Nouns
Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are words that appear together so often that they have become one idea. They can be put together in one word (classroom) or stay separated into two (high school).
Noun + Noun: notebook, bus stop
Adjective + Noun: whiteboard, erasable pen
Noun + Verb: sunrise, bell ringing
Verb + Noun: reading annotation, learning style
Verbal Nouns (Gerunds)
Verbal Nouns (Gerunds)
Verbal nouns are actually verbs that end in –ing that are acting as a noun. It is normally an activity that you can do.
Dancing is my favorite activity
I love singing.
I am on the wrestling team.
On Wednesdays, you can find me playing football.
I find myself learning in English class.
Teaching is clearly her passion.
Painting always helps me relax.
I read her writing, and it’s great!
How Nouns Function
How Nouns Function
Nouns have several important functions. While it’s impossible to list them all here, we’ll go over the most important jobs nouns are tasked with.
Nouns are subjects. Every sentence has a subject, which is a noun that tells us what that sentence is all about. John swung the baseball bat.
Nouns are direct objects. These nouns receive action from verbs. John swung the baseball bat.
Nouns are indirect objects. These nouns receive the direct object. Brad threw John the ball.
Nouns are objects of prepositions. These nouns follow the prepositions in prepositional phrases. John swung the baseball bat at Greg.
Nouns are predicate nominatives. These nouns follow linking verbs and rename the subject. John is a baseball player.
Nouns are object complements. These nouns complete the direct object. They named their dog Max.
Sources: http://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/
ProNouns
ProNouns
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. They are more generic than nouns and help writing sound less monotonous. They can appear as the subject of a sentence or in the object, just like a noun.
Personal Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are used as subjects and objects in sentences.
Subjects: I, we, you, he, she, it, they, what, whoObjects: me, us, you, him, her, it, them, what, whom
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns replace nouns and show ownership and possession. They DO NOT contain apostrophes.
my, mine, ours
your, yours
his, her, its
their, theirs
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to point to something specific within a sentence. These pronouns can indicate items in space or time, and they can be either singular or plural.
Singular: this, that, none, such
Plural: these, those, neither, such
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. There are only 5 in the English language. Some refer to people and other to things. They may also take the suffix “-ever.”
what, which, who, whom, whose, where whatever, whatsoever, whichever, whoever, whosoever, whomever, whosoever, wherever
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns describe a place, person(s), time, or thing(s) that is NOT specified. They are ALWAYS SINGULAR
Anybody, Anyone, Anything, Each, Each one, Either, Neither, Everybody, Everyone, Everything, Nobody, No one, Nothing, Somebody, Someone, Something, Both, Many, Few, All, Most, None, Some
Relative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are pronouns that directly refer to a previously mentioned noun. They can be used to join sentences or start dependent clauses. For example: The boy who cried wolf
which, what, whose, whoever, whomever, who, whom, what, wehere, when, that
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns
There are only two reciprocal pronouns in the English language. They address two or more people who are simultaneously completing the same act.
For example: --- Be kind to one another. --- Mrs. Morse and Mrs. Wood help each other make materials for students.
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns
There are only two reciprocal pronouns in the English language. They address two or more people who are simultaneously completing the same act. For example: --- Be kind to one another. --- Mrs. Morse and Mrs. Wood help each other make materials for students.
myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, yourselves, ourselves, themselves
Verbs
Verbs
Verbs are the actions of the language and are necessary for every sentence to function. However, because verbs are so versatile, it can sometimes be hard to understand how they work or even identify them. Verbs can either be “DOING,” “BEING” verbs:
Examples of “DOING” verbs
Play
Listen
Run
Speak
Write
Read
Examples of “BEING” verbs
Be
Exist
Am
Have
Are
Live
One of the most important verbs in any language is the verb “TO BE." We have 8.
be
is
was
being
am
are
were
been
Verb Types (Transitive, Intransitive, Helping, Linking)
Verb Types (Transitive, Intransitive, Helping, Linking)
Transitive Verbs:
transitive verbs are incomplete without a direct object, as in the following examples:
INCOMPLETE
Mrs. Morse holds.
COMPLETE
Mrs. Morse holds this class together with her humor.
INCOMPLETE ---> COMPLETE
The class named ---> The class named Mrs. Wood their favorite teacher ever.
The student broke --->The student broke his confidence by not studying for the grammar test.
Intransitive Verbs:
An intransitive verb, on the other hand, cannot take a direct object.
The students have thrived on learning grammar.
The sound of Mrs. Morse’s lecture carried through the halls.
The students arrived to class on time, eager to hear the new grammar lesson.
Helping Verbs:
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own and have to "help" another main verb. There are only about 15 helping verbs in English:
be
have
do
can/could
may/ might
will/would
shall/should
must/ ought to
Linking Verbs:
A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement which identifies or describes the subject.
Mrs. Morse is the best teacher.
Grammar became my favorite thing to learn.
English class was the reason I showed up to school today.
Verbals
Verbals
Gerund:
Gerund:
An –ing verb that is acting as a noun (thing or activity). Because it acts a noun, it can be a subject or object, just like a normal noun. Just like participles and infinitives, they can act alone or take objects as a phrase
My favorite thing to do is learning grammar.
learning grammar is the direct object
learning is the gerund taking grammar as its object gerund phrase
Teaching grammar is what Mrs. Wood does best.
teaching grammar is the subject
teaching is the gerund taking grammar as its object gerund phrase
After grammar instruction, the student was devoted to writing correctly.
writing is the object of the prepositional phrase
writing is the gerund with no object (correctly is an adverb) - gerund
**Gerunds should be used with possessive pronouns (my, your, her), and not object pronouns (me, him etc).**
EXAMPLE: The students counted on me helping them The students counted on my helping them.
Infinitive:
Infinitive:
The basic form of the verb (to + the present tense of the verb) without a subject attached. It begins with an infinitive and can take an object (noun), becoming a phrase. Infinitives can act like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. You can NEVER change the ending.
Mrs. Wood loves to teach grammar.
acting as a noun/direct object
takes an object (“grammar”) - infinitive phrase
To write a grammar lesson was her dream job.
acting as a noun/subject
takes an object (“a grammar lesson”) infinitive phrase
Verb phrases was the lesson to teach.
acting as an adjective since it is modifying the lesson
no object infinitive
I came to Mrs. Morse’s class to learn about grammar.
acting as an adverb because it says WHY I came to class
no object (just a prepositional phrase) infinitive
Sometimes, following the verbs feel, hear, help, let, make, see, and watch an infinitive will LOSE the “to.”
I felt the tears roll down my cheeks when I saw my pencil diagram my sentence correctly.
I hear the students laugh at my jokes, and I watch them relax and try harder.
Mrs. Morse makes me understand grammar better, but she does not let me get away with not trying.
The students see Mrs. Wood write on the board and help her come up with great grammar sentences
What is a “split infinitive?”— when 1 or more words split the “to” & the verb Technically, this is NOT grammatically correct, but it could be a stylistic choice. When writing formally, try not to split the infinitive.
EXAMPLE: I wanted to quickly learn grammar.
-- OR -- I wanted to learn grammar quickly.
Participle:
Participle:
A verb, usually ending in –ing or –ed/past tense, that acts as an adjective. It describes a noun or pronoun in the sentence. It can begin its own phrase or be a lone word attached to a noun/pronoun.
Mrs. Wood’s class, filled with grammar, is my favorite class of all. (Adjective/participle phrase)
Mrs. Morse, teaching tons of grammar, makes this class the best! (Adjective/participle phrase)
The dancing teacher made the students laugh. (Adjective/participle ALONE)
The teacher made the excited students learn so much. (Adjective/participle ALONE)
What is a “dangling participle?”— when a participle is not clearly attached to something. EXAMPLE: Teaching them, this class was the best. (who does “teaching” modify?) Teaching them, Mrs Morse knew this class was the best.
Adjectives
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify nouns or pronouns. The most common adjectives are called ARTICLES (the, a, an). Usually adjectives have certain suffixes that indicate they are adjectives, such as:
–able, -ible, –al, –ant, –ary, –ed, –en, –ent, -er, -est, –ful, –ic, –ing, –ish, ive, –less, –ous, -y.
All adjectives answer the questions:
Which one? What kind? How many? Whose?
Which? -- The fantastic class
Which? -- A great lesson
How many? -- My 25 students
How many? -- A few teachers
What kind? -- The smart students
What kind? -- A fast-paced class
Whose? -- Mrs. Morse’s notes
Whose? -- Mrs. Wood’s class
Usually, the adjective is next to the noun or pronoun, but sometimes it can be further away in the sentence. Look at the example below.
Usually, Mrs. Wood’s class, made up of 32 students who all love her, is exciting and fun.
("Mrs. Wood's" modifies "class," but so do "exciting" and "fun")
Participle
Participle
Sometimes, verbs can act as adjectives. This is known as the participle. These verbs will either be in past tense or end in –ing (look at the sentence above in “exciting”). [Go to the verbals section for more information].
The teaching student
A learning day
An excited class
A found error
The reading corner
A writing lesson
Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparatives and superlatives are special versions of the adjective that show comparison between one or more things. You use these already, but it is important to note that the most common mistake with these are using the incorrect form with a number. The comparative form should ONLY be used when you are comparing 2 things. The superlative compares 2+ (think senior superlatives in the yearbook!). Here are some examples below.
Adjective -- Comparative -- Superlative
Good -- Better -- Best
Bad -- Worse -- Worst
Smart -- Smarter -- Smartest
Many -- More -- Most
Hard-worker -- Harder-worker -- Hardest-worker
Tired -- More tired -- Most tired
Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives modify a noun or pronoun so that we know which specific one the writer/speaker is referring to. Do not get them confused with demonstrative pronouns. While many of the words are the same, their function is different. One is the thing itself (pronoun), and one is describing the thing (adjective). Your common demonstrative adjectives are: this, that, yonder, yon, former, latter, these, those.
Demonstrative Adjective vs. Demonstrative Pronoun
This teacher is delightful. (“This” is describing the teacher, the subject = Adjective)
This is delightful. (“This” is the subject = Pronoun)
Those grammatical concepts are getting much easier. ("Those" are describing the "concepts" = Adjective)
Those are getting much easier. ("Those" is the subject = Pronoun)
Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives modify a noun, but also ask a question. Your common ones are: where, what, which, whose, why, how.
Which pen should I write with?
Whose packets are these?
What student sits here?
How many times have you said that?
***Note: “Which” indicates choices. “What” is used more generically. If you know the choices, choose “which.” It is more formal.***
Coordinate Adjectives vs. Non-Coordinate Adjectives
Coordinate Adjectives vs. Non-Coordinate Adjectives
Sometimes a noun or pronoun has multiple adjectives describing it. If they both have equal importance (coordinate), they need to be separated by a comma. If not (non-coordinate) and they build together to create a description, you do not need to separate them with commas.
Coordinate Adjectives
The smart, cool grammar teacher showed her students diagramming.
The hardworking, fascinated students worked hard to impress them.
Non-Coordinate Adjectives
Two smart grammar teachers showed the students diagramming.
All the hardworking students worked hard to impress them.
Adjective Phrases and Clauses
Adjective Phrases and Clauses
Sometimes groups of words work together to act as an adjective. They follow the same punctuation patterns as outlined in punctuation pages and phrase/clause pages. Look at the examples and descriptions below.
The teacher who I admire the most is Mrs. Morse.
“who I admire the most” is a clause describing the “teacher”
Mrs. Wood, with the most knowledge about grammar, is funny.
“with the most knowledge of grammar” is a phrase describing “Mrs. Wood”
The grammar that they teach us in class is advanced, but fun.
“that they teach us in class” is a clause that describes the “grammar”
The student sitting in the front row gets the most information.
“sitting in the front row” is a phrase describing the “student”
Adverbs
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs commonly end in –ly and all adverbs answer the questions
How? When? Where? Why? and To what extent?.
Let's look at some adverbs:
Let's look at some adverbs:
How does she teach? -- Mrs. Wood teaches well.
When does she teach? -- Mrs. Morse teaches every day.
Where is grammar taught? -- Grammar is taught here.
Why does Mrs. Wood teach? -- She teaches to make you better.
To what extent did she teach? -- She taught adverbs completely.
How can adverbs modify three different parts of speech?
The fully collaborative Mrs. Morse works so well with Mrs. Wood to teach the students more about grammar.
Adverb modifying verb: The fully collaborative Mrs. Morse works so well with Mrs. Wood to teach the students more about grammar.
Adverb modifying adverb: The fully collaborative Mrs. Morse works so well with Mrs. Wood to teach the students more about grammar.
Adverb modifying adjective: The fully collaborative Mrs. Morse works so well with Mrs. Wood to teach the students more about grammar.
Some Common Mistakes
Some Common Mistakes
***Note: “Well” = adverb, “Good” = adjective. Therefore when someone asks how you are, you say:
“I am doing well” (CORRECT)
“I am doing good [things]” (INCORRECT)
***On another note, make sure you are using the adverb form of the word when you intend it to be used as such. For example:
Grammar is mad fun. vs. Grammar is madly fun
“mad” is an adjective, so it cannot modify another adjective (“fun”)
“madly” is an adverb (ends in –ly), so it CAN modify adjectives (“fun”)
Adverb Phrases and Clauses
Adverb Phrases and Clauses
Just like with adjectives, sometimes a group of words (phrase or clause) can act as an adjective by answering an adjective question. Look at the examples below.
Mrs. Morse teaches with flare.
Phrase telling how Mrs. Morse teaches
After the bell rings, Mrs. Wood begins the grammar lesson.
Clause explaining when Mrs. Wood begins
The students learn about grammar in Mrs. Morse’s classroom.
Phrase telling where the students learn
Mrs. Wood tells the students to diagram so they understand its importance.
Clause explaining why Mrs. Wood tells students to diagram
The students learn with such ease that they can fix their parent's mistakes.
Phrase showing to what extent the students learn?
Conjunctions
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that join words, phrases, clauses, or sentences together. They are an important part of the language, despite how small they are. They show the relationship between the two areas they are joining.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions
The most common conjunctions are coordinating. Just like if your outfit “coordinates,” the conjunctions also join together two things that match.
Joining words: I like Mrs. Morse and Mrs. Wood. (2 of the same part of speech)
Joining phrases: Mrs. Wood with the short hair and the blue eyes teaches us all grammar.
Joining clauses: Mrs. Wood is great, and Mrs. Morse is great too.
Joining sentences: Mrs. Morse teaches us grammar. And Mrs. Wood teaches us how to use it.
***Your coordinating conjunctions make up the acronym FANBOYS.
For
And
Neither/Nor
But
Or/Either
Yet
So
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions
If coordinating conjunctions join things that are equal, then subordinating conjunctions join two things that are unequal. The word “subordinate” itself indicates less importance. These words begin dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses) and join them to independent clauses. Look below at the list of common subordinating conjunctions.
after, before, if, so that, when, although, by the time, in case, than, whenever, as, even if, now that, the first time, whether or not, as soon as, even though, once, unless, while, because, every time, since, until, why
Since subordinate conjunctions connect dependent clauses to independent, they also show the relationship of the dependent clause to the independent. In this way, they act as mini-transitions. Use the table below to choose/find subordinate conjunctions that serve the same purpose.
Time
after
since
as
until
as soon as
when
before
whenever
now that
while
once
Cause/Effect; Reason
as
because
due to the fact
since
so that
in order that
Contrast/
Concession
even if
in spite/despite the fact that
although
(even) though
while
whereas
Place
where
wherever
Condition
as (far/long/soon) as
as if/though
even if/ if
on condition that
unless
whether or not
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions
These conjunctions work in two parts. For example: Mrs. Morse is both intelligent and funny. The words “both” and “and” work together and always come in this pair. Some other common ones are…
Either… or…, Neither… nor…, Rather… or…, Not only… but also…, If… then…
Either Mrs. Wood or Mrs. Morse has to be the best.
Neither Mrs. Morse nor Mrs. Wood will give up being the best.
The students would rather have Mrs. Wood or Mrs. Morse than another teacher.
Not only do the students love Mrs. Wood and Mrs. Morse, but also they love English class.
If the students do Mrs. Morse and Mrs. Wood’s work, then they will learn so much.
Similar
also
in the same way
likewise
similarly
Emphasis
certainly
in fact
indeed
of course
Cause/Effect; Reason
consequently
as a result
for this reason
hence
therefore
thus
Summary/
Conclusion
finally
for these reasons
in conclusion
in other words
in short
in summary
Example / Illustration
for example
for instance
indeed
in fact
in other words
in short
specifically
that is
Contrast / Concession
at the same time
instead
alternatively
meanwhile
besides
nevertheless
conversely
on one/other hand
however
otherwise
in contrast
still
Additional/Order of Importance
first, second…
more/most significant
in the first place…
above all
also
most of all
in addition
last
next
finally
furthermore
more/most important
more over
Time Sequence
first, second…
subsequently
first of all/place
at that time
meanwhile
earlier/in the past
next
now/presently/today
after that/a while
until now
again
eventually
also
finally
then
last/ last of all
Prepositions
Prepositions
Prepositions are words that give the language direction. They are normally short words that come directly in front of a noun or pronoun. They are often hard to grasp since there are over 100 words in the English language that can be used as pronouns. There is a song that can help you remember the most used prepositions.
There are three types of prepositions: time, place, and direction. Thinking about them this way, might help you see their function in sentences.
**Don’t forget these: for, with, to, of, at, like.**
Preposition Song
Preposition Song
(Sung to the tune of “Yankee Doodle”)
Aboard, about, above, across
Against, along, around
Amid, among, after, at
Except, for, during, down
Behind, below, beneath, beside
Between, before, beyond
By, in, from, off, on, over, of
Until, unto, upon
Under, underneath, since, up
Like, near, past, throughout, through
With, within, without, instead
Toward, inside, into, to
Time Prepositions
Since
Until
Before
After
During
Place Prepositions
Around
Between
Against
With
In
Direction Prepositions
Across
Up
Down
Of
Past
One thing to keep in mind about prepositions is, while they are small, they do a lot of work in our language and without them, it would be difficult to understand each other. Some words can act as a preposition in one context, but be a different part of speech in another. It is important to understand how they all work together.
Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional Phrases
It might help, when identifying prepositions, to look for the whole phrase. Prepositional phrases start with a preposition and end with a noun/pronoun (object of the preposition). This will always happen. So, if you have a “little” word, and you aren’t sure what part of speech it is, look to see if there is a noun around it. If so, it could be a prepositional phrase.
Prepositional Phrases= PREPOSITION + N/PN (OBJECT of the preposition)
Mrs. Morse teaches grammar in English class
Grammar is my favorite thing to learn with vocabulary.
Until class starts, I don’t know what to do with myself.
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