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Presidential speeches are often evaluated and studied based on their rhetorical techniques.
President Obama's 2009 "A More Perfect Union" speech in which he addressed the issue of race in the United States and sought to unify the country by appealing to common values and shared ideals is one such speech. He used a variety of rhetorical devices to make his case, including repetition, parallelism, and allusions to the founding documents of the United States.
For example, he repeated the phrase "we the people" several times to emphasize the idea of unity and equality. He also used parallelism to draw connections between the struggles of the past and present and to show how far the country has come in addressing issues of race.
Listen to the speech (you can follow along with the transcript here). As you listen and read, pay attention to the rhetorical devices you hear throughout. Several of them are identified for you below
Ethos: Obama establishes his credibility and authority as a speaker by highlighting his personal experiences and his background as a community organizer and a constitutional law professor. He also uses rhetorical questions and logical arguments to support his points and to challenge his audience's assumptions.
Pathos: Obama evokes emotions and empathy from his audience by sharing personal stories and experiences. For example, he describes how his own parents and grandparents struggled with issues of race and discrimination, and how this shaped his own beliefs and values.
Logos: Obama uses logical reasoning and evidence to support his arguments and to persuade his audience. For example, he cites historical examples and legal precedents to support his argument that the United States has made progress on issues of race, but still has work to do.
Repetition: Obama repeats key phrases and words throughout the speech to emphasize their importance and to create a sense of unity and coherence. For example, he repeats the phrase "A More Perfect Union" as the title and theme of the speech, and also repeats words like "race," "equality," and "opportunity" to emphasize their significance.
Metaphor: Obama uses metaphors to compare abstract ideas to concrete objects or experiences, and to create a more vivid and engaging image for his audience. For example, he compares the United States to a "journey" or a "work in progress" to illustrate the country's history and challenges.
Irony: Obama uses irony to challenge his audience's assumptions and to create a sense of contrast between what is expected and what is actually true. For example, he uses ironic statements like "There is no black America and white America and Latino America and Asian America; there's the United States of America" to challenge the idea of racial divisions in the country.
Allusion: Obama uses allusions to historical events, figures, and texts to add depth and context to his argument. For example, he alludes to the Civil Rights Movement and the Constitution to illustrate the progress and challenges of race in the United States.
Rhetorical question: Obama uses rhetorical questions to challenge his audience's assumptions and to encourage them to think critically about his arguments. For example, he asks "What is it that we're trying to teach our children?" to encourage his audience to consider their values and beliefs about race.
Anaphora: Obama uses anaphora, the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, to create emphasis and a sense of rhythm in his speech. For example, he uses the anaphora "I have never been so naive as to believe that we can get beyond our racial divisions in a single election cycle, or with a single candidate - particularly a candidacy as imperfect as my own" to emphasize his point and create a sense of flow in his speech.
Hyperbole: Obama uses hyperbole, exaggerated statements, to make a strong emotional impact on his audience. For example, he says "What's happening in this country isn't right. It's not who we are" to emphasize the importance and urgency of addressing issues of race in the United States.
Asyndeton: Obama uses asyndeton, the omission of conjunctions between clauses, to create a sense of speed and urgency in his speech. For example, he says "We are one people, all of us pledging allegiance to the stars and stripes, all of us defending the United States of America" to emphasize the importance of coming together as a nation.
Antithesis: Obama uses antithesis, the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, to create tension and emphasis in his speech. For example, he says "We the people, in order to form a more perfect union" to contrast the idea of "we the people" with the ongoing challenge of creating a "more perfect union."
Alliteration: Obama uses alliteration, the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of adjacent words, to create a sense of rhythm and emphasis in his speech. For example, he says "We worship an awesome God in the blue states" to create a rhythmic and memorable phrase.
Personification: Obama uses personification, the attribution of human qualities to non-human things, to create a more engaging and vivid image for his audience. For example, he says "The complexities of race in this country that we've never really worked through - a part of our union that we have yet to perfect" to personify the idea of race as a living, ongoing challenge in the United States.
Assonance: Obama uses assonance, the repetition of vowel sounds in successive words, to create a sense of harmony and coherence in his speech. For example, he says "We cannot solve the challenges of our time unless we solve them together - unless we perfect our union by understanding that we may have different stories" to create a sense of unity and agreement among his audience.
Simile: Obama uses similes, comparisons using "like" or "as," to create a more vivid and engaging image for his audience. For example, he says "It's a racial stalemate we've been stuck in for years" to compare the challenges of race to a stuck or immovable object.
Metonymy: Obama uses metonymy, the substitution of one word for another that is closely associated with it, to create a more concise and evocative phrase. For example, he says "The fact is that the comments that have been made and the issues that have surfaced over the last few weeks reflect the complexities of race in this country that we've never really worked through" to refer to the recent controversy surrounding his former pastor, Reverend Wright, using the term "comments" to represent the broader issue.
Parallelism: Obama uses parallelism, the repetition of a grammatical structure, to create a sense of balance and coherence in his speech. For example, he says "We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus, and non-believers" to create a parallel structure between the different religious groups in the United States.
Antonomasia: Obama uses antonomasia, the substitution of a descriptive phrase for a proper name, to create a more engaging and memorable image for his audience. For example, he refers to Reverend Wright as "my former pastor" to describe his relationship to the controversial figure in a more concise and effective way.
Synecdoche: Obama uses synecdoche, a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or the whole is used to represent a part, to create a more vivid and concise image for his audience. For example, he says "We cannot solve the challenges of our time unless we solve them together - unless we perfect our union by understanding that we may have different stories, but we hold common hopes" to represent the complex and diverse experiences of the American people with the more general concept of "common hopes."
Epistrophe: Obama uses epistrophe, the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses, to create emphasis and a sense of rhythm in his speech. For example, he says "I have never been so naive as to believe that we can get beyond our racial divisions in a single election cycle, or with a single candidate - particularly a candidacy as imperfect as my own" to emphasize his point and create a sense of flow in his speech.
One speech of former President Trump's that is often studied for its rhetorical techniques is his 2016 "Make America Great Again" campaign speech. In this speech, Trump outlined his vision for the country and appealed to the emotions and fears of his audience. He used a variety of rhetorical devices to make his case, including repetition, hyperbole, and appeals to patriotism and nationalism. For example, he repeated the phrase "Make America Great Again" several times to create a sense of unity and to emphasize his message. He also used hyperbole to exaggerate the problems facing the country and to paint a bleak picture of the future without his leadership. Overall, the "Make America Great Again" speech is considered a notable example of rhetoric and continues to be studied and discussed.
3.04 Assessment:
Choose one of the following famous speeches and evaluate the speaker's use of rhetoric. Identify and explain the use of at least five different rhetorical devices.
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