A Viable Übermensch: A Modern Critique and Expansion of Nietzschean Ideals

The fundamental principles of Nietzsche’s übermensch provide valuable suggestions for the personal creation of an affirming life. However, their usefulness is diminished by Nietzsche’s stringent and unattainable definition of an übermensch. When Nietzsche’s guidance is adopted and integrated into Adam Smith’s theories of moral sentiments and economics, a balance between the two philosophers can be struck that promotes living according to one’s moral values in a sustainable manner.

Nietzsche abhors the current state of humanity, which he argues has resulted from “the death of God” and the regression of society into nihilism. With the decline of religion in Western modernity, the moral foundation that guides social norms has been eradicated, leaving only the ugliness of the world. According to Nietzsche, the world is poisoned by the nihilism of despair and disorientation where the values that guide life cannot be realized or have disappeared altogether. People subject to a nihilistic worldview exhibit the characteristics of mediocrity, uniformity, and devotion to material comforts that Nietzsche ascribes to the “last man”. Since nihilism makes life devoid of purpose, the “last man” prioritizes ease and security and is uninspired to reach his full potential. Nietzsche values suffering as a means to achieve greatness and spur personal growth, thus he views the traits of the “last man” to be decadent.

The regression of human character to the “last man” can be seen today in the prevalence of Martin Heidegger’s notion of Gestell and workaholism. People have come to view their jobs and responsibilities as a means to an end, constantly striving towards an ever-advancing benchmark of achievement. Work for the sake of work and efficiency for the sake of efficiency has reduced everything to resources, including individuals themselves, as Gestell states. The “last man” emerges as a result of Gestell’s demotion of everything to a resource. The circularity of Gestell reduces every person and object to a production input. This creates a world void of the deeper purpose that brings about the character of the “last man.” The “last man” subscribes to a nihilistic metaphysical worldview, seeing the immediate desire for material goods as the only horizon of disclosure. People are focused on the small daily happenings and lose sight of the larger picture of their life. As the modern philosopher Julian Young notes, technology has increased the stimuli that demand an immediate response. People are always present in the “foreground” of their lives as a result. Nietzsche advocates for people to take time to step back and reflect on their lives. By doing so, they will be able to see the triviality of their immediate concerns and aspire to create a larger narrative for their lives, simultaneously escaping Gestell and advancing towards the übermensch.

To create purpose in one’s life is to overcome the nihilism that constrains one’s worldview. In Nietzsche’s opinion, the only way to achieve this is to become an übermensch. The übermensch is the pinnacle of humanity with superior intelligence, character, and autonomy. They dedicate their life to the development of the moral virtues that have ceased to exist under nihilism. This undertaking, as Nietzsche recommends it, requires almost the complete abandonment of social customs. As long as someone is living according to social norms, they will be subjected to the nihilistic definition of self and worldview that society imposes on them, therefore failing to meet Nietzsche’s definition of an übermensch. Additionally, Nietzsche’s requirement that the übermensch sublimate all drives is disincentivized by society. Socialized human nature includes the natural human weaknesses that Nietzsche abhors.

Becoming an übermensch requires the theoretical skills of being able to visualize and create one’s purpose, as well as the practical skills to execute the vision. Nietzsche’s strict qualifications for an übermensch make becoming one wholly unattainable. The intensive process of rejecting social customs and creating a self separate from social customs requires the time and resources to not be dependent on society, and the absence of other commitments and responsibilities. In this sense, Nietzsche is strictly appealing to wealthy individuals who are already artistically and philosophically inclined. Immense privilege is required to be in a position to reject the financial, political, and social stability that modern society provides. Additionally, the dedication of one’s life to the creation of their character is a selfish and self-interested pursuit that involves the neglect of other individuals. Every person has others who depend on them in some sense and as human beings, we are fundamentally reliant on other people. There is no scenario in which it would be feasible for someone to take on the loneliness and stress of becoming an übermensch. After all, Nietzsche himself attempted it and suffered a psychological breakdown. Furthermore, while it can be implicitly understood that Nietzsche did not intend for everyone to become an übermensch, should everyone attempt to follow his guidance and dedicate themselves to the creation of their character, society would cease to exist. If each individual focused solely on themselves, there would be no common culture or customs, no work or collaboration. People’s social, emotional, and material needs would not be met since the personal development of an übermensch is so narrowly focused on the individual.

If Nietzsche’s conviction in the übermensch as the ideal mode of being is so steadfast, why has no great individual overcome the logistical odds to rise to this superhuman level? In all of his work, Nietzsche was never able to identify an individual that he deemed worthy of the übermensch title, making it a reasonable assumption that he would not recognize any such historical figure today. Nietzschean scholar Jan Kahambing presents the argument that there has never been, and will never be, an übermensch as Nietzsche describes them because nihilism is not a strong enough force to inspire the tremendous effort needed to become an übermensch. The modern manifestation of nihilism is an intellectual phenomenon that can be overcome through imagination. It does not inspire a strong enough “will to power,” as Nietzsche articulates. Kahambing argues that nihilism does not create the desire for the intense level of suffering that produces an übermensch. The lens of a romanticized spectacle through which tragedy is viewed creates a collective sentiment that is in opposition to the painful individuality that breeds the übermensch. True nihilism, Kahambing argues, must be experienced existentially to truly overcome it. Nihilism in today’s society is ethical nihilism, a loss of values and culture, but not necessarily a loss of individual hope. Thus the paradox exists that the human tendencies that enable us to persevere in a tragic world are the same ones that prevent us from becoming übermensch. He asserts that one must first become the “last man” in the truest sense before becoming an übermench. Since nihilism is still developing and socialized society has made it a comfortable phenomenon, it has been impossible to truly experience the suffering Nietzsche describes. This presents further evidence that human nature and the conditions of life are not conducive to the development of the übermensch in the way Nietzsche insisted.

While Kahambing’s claim rejects the viability of the Nietzschean übermensch, it does establish that other ways of being are life-affirming. His argument implicitly states that people need not become übermensch to overcome nihilism because they can, and already do, find meaning in tragedy, as the ancient Greeks did in their Dionysian art. The individualism of Nietzsche's übermensch is partly what makes it unattainable. People cannot persevere through tragedy alone; the sense of community that is created by shared suffering helps both individuals and society establish meaning in life. This notion is still emblematic of Nietzsche’s guiding principles as it reflects his idea of eternal recurrence and finding the positives in negative situations to love the whole of one’s life.

Furthermore, the übermensch cannot exist in society because Nietzsche’s requirement that they reject society is fundamentally at odds with the conditions necessary for the übermensch’s development. The übermensch requires the creative and collaborative aspects of society to develop their character; they cannot emerge from a void. Scholar Jacob Golomb argues that the übermensch cannot overcome the nihilistic worldview that society prescribes when their development is inherently grounded in civilization. The übermensch’s identity is influenced by their background in art, culture, and philosophy, and thus also infused with negative traits, such as resentment and anger, that Nietzsche sees as weak. Nietzsche advocates for transfiguring natural drives into self-benefiting virtues, though it is hard to imagine how anyone could do this completely. According to Golomb, since no one can be immune to nihilistic traits, the relative degree to which positive and negative characteristics exist within a person defines their moral character. This validates the notion that the creation of one’s optimal character does not have to include the complete absence of unfavorable characteristics. Human nature includes innate behaviors that, while seen by Nietzche as crude, need not be entirely sublimated for one to live a fulfilling and benevolent life.

While Nietzsche’s definition of an übermensch is not practical from a societal or biological perspective, his themes of eternal recurrence and striving for personal excellence are still valuable guiding principles for one’s life. Eternal recurrence means to love one’s life exactly as it is to be enthusiastic about living it repeatedly, and the creation of one’s character involves adhering to moral principles that promote living with purpose as the best version of one’s self. These tenets of Nietzsche’s work can exist outside of his all-or-nothing view of the übermensch, and they are of more value as guiding advice than targeted benchmarks. As the late philosophy professor Bernd Mangus articulated, the übermensch is not a rigid set of instructions, but rather an attitude towards life. This mentality is life-affirming not because it possesses the abstract prerequisites of sublimating one’s drives or creating one’s character, but because it involves the enthusiastic acceptance of eternal recurrence. The value of Nietzsche’s philosophy is found by taking his general principles and adapting them so one can be motivated to achieve their potential in a lifestyle that is sustainable and exists within social customs. While Nietzsche would view this approach as a failing, it demonstrates an individual's complex discretion and personal willpower. By identifying how one can apply Nietzsche’s principles to their own life rather than blindly following his directions, they are exercising autonomy over their life. Since all of our choices are constrained in some way by social customs, the present environment, financial situation, and countless other factors, it is impossible to live up to Nietzsche’s definition of a meaningful life as an übermensch. Keeping Nietzsche’s teachings relevant in the modern world requires living according to personal moral values in a manner that is sustainable rather than completely sacrificing material necessities and joys for unnecessary nihilistic suffering.

Given that the functioning of society is informed by capitalism, finding an alternate expression of the übermensch requires examining the relationship between Nietzschean ideals and Adam Smith’s moral and economic philosophy. Competitive capitalism inspires ambition and productivity because people are inherently self-interested. Individuals have the monetary incentive to strive for success in their careers and distinguish themselves from others. Nietzsche’s values align more closely with those promoted by capitalism than Karl Marx’s communism. In a communist system where everyone’s needs are provided for, people become lethargic as there is no reason to work beyond the bare minimum. A quantitative analysis of Smith’s The Wealth of Nations done by Johan Graafland and Thomas Wells reveals that Smith links free-market conditions with inspiring the virtue of industriousness over six times more frequently than with its corresponding vice of laziness. Individuals can create their character more effectively through the personal autonomy that capitalism provides. Critical life processes such as establishing a career or raising a child require tremendous personal responsibility. Although these examples are more indirect manners of creating one’s character than Nietzsche advocates for, they still can foster a sense of purpose and accomplishment. As the “invisible hand” metaphor demonstrates, Smith directly links societal flourishing to individual betterment. People with values such as honesty, agreeability, and integrity will flourish in a market system because they are seen as virtuous, indicated by the fact that 90% of Smith’s references to personal virtues are positively related to prosperity for society. Smith mentions temperance, prudence, and benevolence most frequently, all of which inform the creation of one’s best character in Nietzsche’s philosophy. The busyness of capitalist society teaches the discipline that Nietzsche reveres, and while he would not support Smith’s emphasis on the value of benevolence, kindness towards others plays a vital role in the development of a higher type of person.

Ultimately, there can be no one definition of the übermensch that is all-encompassing. Success and fulfillment look different for every individual. Imposing an arbitrary and unattainable definition of greatness only discourages people from attempting the creation of their character. Nietzsche’s theory of eternal recurrence is meant to inspire commitment to finding joy in one’s daily life. By focusing on caring for all aspects of one’s character, including intellectual, emotional, social, and financial wellbeing, one can both create meaning in their life and overcome capitalist Gestell, achieving a new standard of übermensch.