Friedrich Nietzsche

Introduction

As a staunch opponent of religion and metaphysics, Friedrich Nietzsche’s philosophy advocates for affirming one’s present life rather than idolizing the promise of a redeeming afterlife. Despite the significance of religion in his childhood, Nietzsche ultimately found it to be decadent in his philosophy for its false notion of justice. Nietzsche was dismayed with the state of morality in society during his life; He predicted a regression of individuality into a decadent herd mentality that was manifested in the political terror of the Bolshevik and Communist revolutions. The idea of overcoming the various pitfalls and manifestations of nihilism through changing one’s mentality informs much of Nietzsche’s work in his most famous books, The Gay Science and Thus Spoke Zarathustra.

Nihilism and Capitalism

In the parable “The Madman” from The Gay Science, Nietzsche proclaims that “God is dead.” As the importance of religion in society decreases with the emergence of science, Nietzsche argues that society’s guiding moral values have dissolved. Without the moral foundation that religion provides, there is no basis on which those values can exist. As a result, society has regressed into a state of nihilism. The weak form of existential nihilism is defined as the belief that the values that give life purpose such as justice, benevolence, and triumph, can never be achieved. This is also known as the nihilism of despair in which suffering and inequality are inescapable. Through this lens, looking at the world objectively provides a clear picture of its insurmountable injustice. This worldview is a precursor to the more extreme nihilism, known as the strong form of existential nihilism. It states that these values do not exist in the first place and life as we know it has no meaning. Also known as the nihilism of indifference, this perspective characterizes the type of person Nietzsche calls the “last man,” a person who lives in the time after the death of God with no values. The “last man” values comfort and is content with simple amusements. They do not strive for personal achievement or fulfillment. For these reasons, Nietzsche argues that this type of person lives a meaningless life devoid of purpose.

A worldview that is satisfied by material possessions is one created by Adam Smith’s competitive market system. Capitalism functions by appealing to universal human traits of self-interest and the desire for wealth and material possessions. Nietzsche despises this notion of human sameness and believes an affirming life is created only through the individual development of one’s character that cannot exist for workers under capitalism. The übermensch is Nietzsche’s definition of the most intellectually and morally sophisticated individual. This type of person is not drawn to the utilitarian, and ultimately decadent, material pleasures of capitalism. Nietzsche argues that true fulfillment and personal flourishing are derived from suffering. Thus he opposes the capitalist culture that values comfort and security. However, the element of hierarchy that capitalism creates is partially consistent with Nietzsche’s ideal worldview, though he advocates for a hierarchy based on character and intelligence. Capitalism does not guarantee that the most morally sound and virtuous individual is the most successful. It promotes achievement through the exact opposite: selfish behavior and conformity. From Nietzsche’s perspective, the specialization and division of labor in a competitive market system create a workforce that is restricted intellectually by the homogeneous tasks they perform. This results in a society of “last men” that work for profit and production without developing their character. An acceptable Nietzschean hierarchy is one where the übermensch serves as the role model for the rest of the population. This creates a “pathos of distance” within each individual where they see the difference between the higher type of person they could become and the average individual they currently are.

Similarities to Moral Sentiments

Nietzsche’s concept of drive psychology is consistent with Smith’s theory of moral sentiments as they both cite emotions as the basis for human decision-making. Individual behavior is not a result of free will, Nietzsche argues, but rather informed by one’s innate affective dispositions. Humans are a collection of passions that drive us to think and act, perhaps unconsciously, under a common theme. Rather than letting these impulses determine one’s actions, Nietzsche believes that the most advanced type of person, the übermensch, can sublimate their drives and passions to use them for one’s own benefit. Smith agrees that behavior is driven by passions to preserve the human species. However, in Smith’s philosophy, he aims to build an economic system around human nature rather than ask people to sublimate it. The moral conscience and imagination that enable compatible living in society are restraints on the traits of self-interest and aggression that promote a capitalist economy.

Marxism as a Form of Slave Morality

Through the abolition of private property and economic classes, Marx advocates for class homogenization over individuality. This fundamental pillar of Marxism is in direct opposition to Nietzsche’s belief in the value of self-creation and self-determination. In Nietzschean philosophy, two worldviews inform human behavior: master morality and slave morality. Master morality is life-affirming and values all parts of life, the good and the bad, for what they inspire. In contrast, slave morality is constrained to the traditionally religious perspective that finds value in the illusion of salvation and retribution in the afterlife as compensation for the injustices of the physical world. Master morality is having power over oneself and nihilism, whereas slave morality succumbs to pity and the false promise of the elusive “other world.” Marx theorized that the dissolution of capitalism and the rise of communism will create a utopian society. To fully love and affirm life in the Nietzschean sense, one must accept the ugliness and suffering of the world. Marx’s philosophy fails to do this by promising a theoretical communist utopia that can never come into existence. Thus, Nietzsche would consider his worldview an embodiment of slave morality for its idealization of weakness. Suffering builds character and promotes the development of übermensch, whereas the alleviation of hardship through the equalization of all people decreases individual responsibility.

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