13E God Transformed Mankind into the Image of God (optional excursus)

The excursuses are optional and are not part of the main course. 

In Genesis 1:26, God made mankind into the image of God. Since transformation of an existing entity is the normal meaning of “made” or asah, it is reasonable to conclude that God transformed already existing primate beings into the image of God. Finding the point at which God began to intervene and transform humans into the image of God is challenging. It could be 6 million-, 2 million-, 300,000-, or 70,000- years ago. It is possible that I am wrong about the timing, but my guess is that God began the process of transformation approximately 2 Ma. One indication of the timing of God’s transformation is that the transformed humans would rule over fish, birds, crawling things, and grazing animals.

Genesis 1:26. Then God said, “Let Us make mankind in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the livestock and over all the earth, and over every crawling thing that crawls on the earth.”

The list in v. 26 is slightly different (missing carnivores) from the list of animals that Adam and Eve would rule over in v. 27 (all animals that move upon the earth), which might indicate that vv. 26 and 27 are separated in time. The first list seems to indicate that humans did not rule over these animals prior to being made in the image of God. Humans did not hunt or shepherd animals prior to 2 Ma, but Homo erectus learned to hunt all these animals after 2 Ma. The word translated as rule in v. 26 does not imply a pleasant and kind rule but more of a dominant and harsh rule, which would seem to translate to hunting. If so, then this might be an indication that God began to transform mankind in the vicinity of 2 Ma. This chapter reviews the anthropological and genomic evidence for the transformation of human intelligence and capabilities, possibly beginning 2.5 Ma.

Approximately 2.5 million years ago, bipedal Australopithecus was consuming vegetation in trees. After 2.5 Ma, Homo habilis began to scavenge carcasses, particularly the bone marrow,  left behind by predators. The word adam (man) in v. 26 lacks the definite article, as with the protomammals in v. 24, possibly implying that the “mankind” that God transformed was a primitive protoman and not the final form of manThe hominins that lived 2.5 Ma (Homo habilis) had some resemblance with humans but many differences. They were protomen.

The verb, na-asah, “let us make,” is the cohortative verb, which we do not have in English. The cohortative “expresses the speaker’s will, desire, or intentions.” [1] It is different from the imperative, which is a command. In this case, it was the “first person common plural cohortative.” [2] The grammar of v. 26 might indicate a long process of transformation. The cohortative verb, “Let us make,” is like the jussive verb used in the first six days of creation. For example, “Let there be light,” has the jussive verb. The jussive verb generally implied a process, such as the formation of the sun. The difference with the cohortative verb in v. 26 is that God is the one who caused the changes, but there still may have been a process. Figure 6I-1 is a graphic that proposes that primates evolved alongside other mammals until 2.5 million years ago, and then God intervened and made mankind wise.

The evolution of modern humans from apes can be divided into four phases (Figure 6I-2). 1 (brown): Hominins became bipedal in the interval from 7 Ma to 2.5 Ma. 2 (green): The size of the brain increased from 2.5 Ma to approximately 300 ka. 3 (dark green): Homo sapiens were distinguished from Neanderthals with DNA related to human personality from 300 ka to 70 ka. 4 (light blue) After Homo sapiens became “modern thinking,” they spread around the world from 70 ka to 12 ka.

The Homo predecessor (stage 1), Australopithecus, did not eat meat (Figure 6I-1, brown). Homo habilis (2.5 – 2 Ma) was a scavenger but not a hunter. With tool use and possibly other factors such as divine intervention or mutation, brain size increased in Homo habilis. The increase in brain size in Homo habilis during the second stage (green in Figure 6I-1) led to the evolution of Homo erectus, which had an even larger brain. Homo erectus (~2 Ma) had the intelligence and physique to hunt animals and construct weapons and had sufficient social cooperation to hunt (rule) large game. They hunted fish, birds, earth, cattle, and creeping things. Although Homo heidelbergenesis and early Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis hunted some large and dangerous animals, they probably did not hunt the most dangerous animals, such as lions and tigers in Africa and India, which were not eliminated by humans in the last 60,000 years. Archaeological artifacts from the Middle East indicate that the descendants of Adam and Eve hunted and eventually exterminated lions. Possibly, there were more adept at hunting every living thing.

There are many different interpretations of the meaning of the plural in the cohortative verb, “Let us make” in v. 26. The ancient Christian interpretation was that the plural included the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The traditional Jewish interpretation is that the group included God and the angels. Another interpretation is that the meaning is not plural but is the grammatical “royal we.” The question of who is involved on the heavenly side influences the interpretation. If the plural does refer to the members of the Trinity, then Jesus, the Father, and the Spirit might have been involved, which might imply different activities. The growth of human intelligence was probably due to genomic changes, climate changes that challenged humans to use their brains to adapt, and the implantation of the spirit or heart in humans, Possibly, the persons of the Trinity took on different roles in the development of humans in the image of God, with one focused on genomics, another on climate, and another on the spiritual heart. One plausible scenario is that the Father directed the Spirit would probably transform the heart, and the Father directed the Son to transform genomics and vary the climate.

William Craig proposed that God created Adam and Eve during the period of Homo heidelbergensis, approximately 800,000 years ago.[3] He thought that Neanderthals were intellectually on par with Homo sapiens and demonstrated spirituality and abstract thinking and thus should be considered human. Since Homo heidelbergensis was the common ancestor of both Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, Craig argued that God created Adam and Eve at the time of Homo heidelbergensis. Craig argued that the H. heidelbergensis brain (up to 1250 cc) was in the range of Homo sapiens (1350 cc average) and Homo neanderthalensis (1410 cc average) and thus should be considered as human. Dr. Craig viewed God’s intervention as a one-time even in the form of the creation of Adam and Eve, yet there was no dramatic change in human or Homo species at any point, other than possibly 70,000 years ago with the advent of modern thinking. Instead of a one-time intervention in the form of Adam and Eve, v. 26 might also indicate a long process of change, such as the gradual increase in brain size from 2.5 Ma to 500 ka. The brain had been growing prior to Homo heidelbergensis and continued to grow afterward. Homo sapiens and Neanderthals continued afterward to increase in intelligence and skills. It appears that humans gradually acquired the image of God over 2 million years and that it was not a single event. On the other hand, it is possible that God installed a nonmaterial spirit or heart at the time of Homo heidelbergensis and that was more transformative than other biological changes. Even if there was a spirit or heart, the human brain continued to grow and new genes were added that possibly adapted to this spirit or heart.

Figure 6I-5 illustrates the development of the neocortex during the embryonic and early fetal development phases.[9] The final result of the process is that neurons group and form linkages at the top of the neocortex, which is the key to intelligence. The more neurons and neuron linkages, the more intelligent. Scientists recently determined that neurons are produced from radial glia cells, which are long green strands in the neocortex (Figure 6I-5). The radial glia cells are called progenitor cells, as well as neural stem cells,[10] because all neurons come from them. Notch receptors and ARHGAPIIB genes are involved in the formation of neurons in phases 1-4 and 5, respectively, in Figure 6I-5. Neurons form in the embryo phase and last throughout the lifecycle of the animal. Thus, the number of neurons formed in this early phase of human development fixes the final number of neurons in the brain.

Xing et al also described the evolution of ARHGAP11B. It was partially duplicated from ARHGAPIIA after the divergence from chimpanzees. A C->G base substitution (mutation) changed the function of ARHGAPIIB and produced more progenitor neurons, particularly basal progenitors, which led to increased numbers of neurons in the neocortex. In experiments, expression of this gene in mice and other mammals resulted in increased neuron production and increased cognition. Xing stated that this mutation occurred prior to the divergence of Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. In addition to increased production of progenitor cells, the human metaphase cell division stage for progenitors has been extended by 50% over that of chimpanzees and probably over Neanderthals. Because of this and other changes, humans have less chromosome errors in apical progenitors. Although Neanderthals had a similar size brain, the arrangement and number of neurons was probably less and had more errors.

Notch is a protein in the embryo that forms a receptor at cell surfaces, and they are attached to NICD just below the cell surface. Receptors such as Notch interact with ligands that are at the boundaries of other cells. When the notch receptor binds to the ligand and detaches from its cell, this releases NICD, which moves to the nucleus and triggers cell division. All mammals have NOTCH1, NOTCH2, NOTCH3, and NOTCH4 receptors, which might be the four phases of notch genes in Figure 6I-3. NOTCH2NL was duplicated in humans and probably Homo species as NOTCH2NL A, B, and C. Great apes do not have less NOTCH2NL genes. NOTCH2NL triggers brain growth in humans because they signal the progenitor cells to keep producing neurons. The human and Neanderthal/Denisovan NOTCH2NL genes are different.

There seems to be a delicate balance in NOTCH expression in modern humans. Having the right number of NOTCH genes and gene expression is important for mental health and avoiding neurological diseases.[12] The three variants of the gene (A, B, and C) reduce expression of NOTCH2NL protein, which might be correlated with a reduction in human brain size during the last 60,000 years (Figure 6I-3).[13]

Another important gene in human brain and neocortex development is ASPM. Lack of expression of this gene causes microcephaly (small brains in humans). It is a much larger protein in humans than flies and mice. ASPM affects the division of cells and affects the surface of the cortex. One study found that ASPM variation plays a role in brain structure in nonhuman primates.[14]
         

Recently, scientists determined that genes that aid in brain expansion and folding emerged from noncoding DNA found in monkeys.[15] Researchers called these de novo genes. The general meaning is that they were not functional previously. De novo in biology means that they began again, or another word is anew. It is possible that God took previously unused DNA and converted it to His purpose or that this conversion was a natural process.

It would be difficult to prove which mutations or duplications that led to human brain evolution were natural and which might have been induced by God. For all we know, they all might have been natural, or they all might have been induced by God. An indication that human brain growth might have required divine intervention is that increased brain size might not have always been advantageous from an evolutionary perspective. The brain requires an enormous amount of energy. Thus, while other vertebrate developments such as the development of the jaw are generally attributed to selection pressure, the growth of the human brain is often attributed to genetic drift. The fact that God stated that He would make humans in God’s image, and genetic drift is attributed as a cause of human brain growth might be two votes in favor of divine intervention as the cause of some of the changes in neocortex development.

The following sections of this chapter focus on the changes in Homo species and might provide information that will be helpful for people as they consider how God might have transformed mankind into the image of God.

Section 6-2 reviews the transition to upright walking. Three fossils from 6 to 7 million years ago indicate upright walking.  Australopithecus afarensis appeared 4 Ma and survived for almost one million years. They had feet that were clearly designed for walking on the ground rather than grasping trees. They had an apelike face and less than 500 cc brain. Their arms and fingers were suitable for climbing trees. They had a plant-based diet. Australopithecus africanus appeared 3.3 Ma and survived for over one million years. They looked like A. afarensis but had a slightly larger brain and rounded cranium. They also had a plant-based diet but also ate insects and eggs. Because Australopithecus lived prior to brain growth, they might not be considered as part of the intentional transformation of humans into the image of God. On the other hand, upright walking is an important characteristic for human life so possibly God intervened to facilitate the transition to upright walking.

Section 6-3 focuses on the period of when brain growth began to accelerate, beginning 2.5 Ma with Homo habilis and Paranthropus boisei. Homo habilis became a scavenger of animal carcasses, which would be prior to the time that “mankind” ruled over the animals. Homo habilis is most famous for developing the Olduwan stone tools, which they used to scavenge meat from the carcasses. They did not hunt, they just scavenged carcasses or chased smaller predators away from carcasses. The brain size continued to increase in Homo ergaster and Homo erectus, which appeared at the end of the Homo habilis period.

Homo erectus appeared 1.9 Ma and were the dominant Homo species on earth for 1.1 million years (Section 6-4). Early species of Homo erectus, Homo erectus ergaster, a.k.a. Homo ergaster and Homo erectus georgicus appeared 2 million years ago. Their bodies were much more similar to Homo sapiens than Homo habilis. They had a larger brain, complex tools, long legs and short arms, and small teeth. They walked upright and had little hair. With the change in diet and possible advent of cooking, they did not need large teeth. They had a much more human face than Homo habilis. They basically looked like humans, except that they had a protruding jaw and jutting eyebrows. As with humans, the nose projected out from the face. This enabled them to retain more moisture in arid regions. They also grew taller than Homo habilis, up to 6 ft tall. Males and females were the same size, indicating monogamy. Brain size gradually increased to the range of 900 to 1,000 cc in Homo erectus.

One of the key factors in brain development in Homo erectus was that the brain continued to grow after birth. Early Homo erectus brains stopped growing in early childhood; however, brain size kept growing well into childhood in later Homo erectus. One of the early anthropologists, Phillip Tobias, reported increase in size in the Broca’s area (communicating) and Wernicke’s area (understanding speech) might have had increases in size in Homo habilis. He also identified an increase in size of the parietal lobe. Although his conclusions generated controversy, similar increases were seen in later Homo erectus. Homo erectus is thought to have had a language beyond that of grunts. They had a hyoid bone, which is bar shaped. It did not have a muscle, which indicates that the sounds were primitive.

There are many fossils of Homo erectus in Africa, Saudi Arabia to Turkey, South, southeast, and east Asia. Some groups moved into Europe. Famous Homo erectus fossils include Turkana, Java man and Peking man. Carotuneto et al. described the biography of Homo erectus. [16] They were originally at East Turkana (Africa) 1.89 Ma. They reached Dmanisi in Georgia 1.77 Ma. They reached northeast India (Yuanmou) 1.7 Ma. The west coast of China was reached 1.7Ma. They reached Indonesia (Java) 1.51 Ma. They reached various locations in the interior of China between 1.1 to 1.36 Ma. The routes favored travel along water bodies and regions without dangerous carnivores. In contrast with other estimates, Husson et al. recently stated that Homo erectus was in Java 1.8 Ma.[17]

The historical order of advances in hunting for Homo erectus resembles Moses’ order: fish, birds, cattle, and creeping things. Braun described evidence of fish, turtle, and crocodile consumption at East Turkana in 1.95 Ma.[18] Early sites in the Olduvai Gorge also had fish bone assemblages. Fish and turtles, crocodiles and amphibians were also preyed on by Homo erectus in southeast Asia. Spawning runs might have provided the opportunity to exploit fish resources. They could have been clubbed or speared. Fish also become stranded in shallow pools during the dry season. Fishers can thus plan to be at locations were pools are drying. [19]

Birds came after fish in the order of Moses. Roach evaluated early Homo erectus association with fish and birds (Figure 6I-4) at lake margins.[20]

“The geology and associated vertebrate fauna place these tracks in a deltaic setting, near a lakeshore bordered by open grasslands. Hominin footprints are disproportionately abundant in this lake margin environment, relative to hominin skeletal fossil frequency in the same deposits. Accounting for preservation bias, this abundance of hominin footprints indicates repeated use of lakeshore habitats by Homo erectus. Clusters of very large prints moving in the same direction further suggest these hominins traversed this lakeshore in multi-male groups. Such reliance on near water environments and possibly aquatic-linked foods, may have influenced hominin foraging behavior and migratory routes across and out of Africa.” [21] 

“Avian tracks are common (N = 29) and consistent with a lakeshore bordered by a grassland environment. Tracks of water birds such as geese (Anatidae) and small wading birds indicate close proximity of surface water to the footprint locales at the time of deposition. Distinctive Pelecanus tracks, a taxon only found near large, open bodies of water, strongly suggest that these tracks were made in the transition zone between river delta and paleolake. The tracks of larger wading birds such as storks (Ciconiidae) and cranes (Gruidae), which forage in shallow water and in grasses near water, support the presence of lake margin grasslands. Very large avian tracks, provisionally ascribed to the extinct, giant marabou stork (Leptoptilos falconeri), may represent the last known appearance of this taxon.” [22]]

Although there are no remains of birds at the earliest Homo erectus sites, it would be reasonable to think that they hunted local and migrating waterfowl along lake margins and wetlands.

After fish and birds, the next step was that man ruled over the earth. This could have two meanings, one is that they spread around the world, which had occurred by about 1.8 Ma, since they had even reached Java by that time. The other possible meaning is that they added the hunting of land animals to their repertoire. Hora described the likely Homo erectus practice of persistence hunting,[24] which might have been the first phase of hunting on land. This involved the tracking and following of animals until they wear out. This type of hunting did not require throwing spears. Hora et al. determined that the maximum length of time for Homo erectus persistence hunting was 5.5 to 5.7 hours prior to dehydration. This was a long enough period to wear out large animals. They probably killed the animals with handheld spears. This type of hunting led to brain growth (tracking), production of tools, communication and socialization. Hora also stated that it is possible that they initially hunted small animals like rodents prior to large animals. Homo erectus eventually became a major land predator. They developed spears and hunted antelope, swine, and cattle. They even hunted rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses. Although rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses are fierce, they are grazing animals and would not fit in the category of beasts of the earth (carnivores). Thus, Moses’ statement in v. 26 that the final phase of ruling over animals was earth, grazing animals (behemah) and creeping things (rodents).

In addition to hunting prowess, the increased brain size of Homo erectus led to dramatic improvements in the quality and complexity of tools. They developed Acheulean tools 1.5 Ma. One Homo erectus subspecies, Java man, made bolos. Homo erectus learned to start fire by striking rocks. Homo erectus collected red ochre for coloring, either as body paint or for other uses.

Homo heidelbergensis (Section 6-5), had a 1250 cc brain volume appeared in the fossil record 780,000 years ago, at which point it was killing large game at Gesher Benot Ya-aqov.[25] [26] They had advanced throwing spears, which had greater diameter toward the point and stone tips, allowing for accuracy and distance in throwing. They were the first to hunt large and dangerous animals such as rhinoceroses, elephants, and hippos. They constructed hearths and simple shelters.

Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis (Section 6-6) diverged from each other and from Homo heidelbergensis approximately 400,000 years ago. This section reviews one of the most important considerations regarding a transformation of humans into the image of God, which is that a few hundred genes related to human creativity and self-control seem to have been added approximately 100 ka. These genes are missing from Neanderthals. One of the concerning issues for some Christians is that Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis interbred when Homo sapiens left Africa 60,000 years ago and began to spread around the world. Europeans acquired their light skin and flaxen hair suitable for northern cold climates from Neanderthals, which had evolved to live in this climate for hundreds of thousands of years. There had also been interbreeding between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals approximately 300 ka or 400 ka. Thirty thousand years after Homo sapiens entered Europe, Homo neanderthalensis vanished from Europe and the world. Chapter 7 focuses on the exit from Africa approximately 70 ka and some of the spiritual and mental characteristics of these “modern thinking humans.” Possibly, this was the point at which God transformed mankind into the image of God. If so, then it was purely a spiritual transformation.

The following play might help people appreciate the progression in human intelligence during the last 2 million years. Of course, these species never actually interacted. This play should be considered as a historico-fantasy.

Days (Eons) of our Lives (Episode 6) – between 2.5 Ma to 70 ka.

Hally Habilis

Eric Erectus

Heidi Heidelbergensis

Nancy Neanderthal

Cindy Sapiens

Cindy: “Hi everyone. I just wanted to get us all together because we are all Homo species of one sort or another.”

Hally: __________________ (points at rock, then picks it up and throws it, then laughs)

Cindy: claps and smiles, kindly says “thank you Hally,” gives Hally a hug

Hally:  jumps up and down with happiness.

Nancy: “No clap, is stupid. I good hand axe”

Heidi: holds up throwing spear, says “Spear,” and throws spear at tree.

Eric: makes noise, holds up primitive hand spear, and jabs the ground.

Cindy: “OK, lets have some food, I barbecued a deer.”

Hally: starts pounding a deer bone with a rock and eats the bone marrow.

Eric: ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­_________________ (strange sound)

Everyone else eats the cooked meat without question.

Cindy: Nancy, it’s too bad your ancestors didn’t come to Africa with our ancestors. You were left out of the last steps of God’s transformation into modern-thinking, spiritual humans. Nevertheless, you are ahead of other Homo species with the transformations that God made in the first 1.7 million years. Look at the difference between you and Hally.

Nancy: We OK. You conquer the world.

Cindy: Yes, that is how it will be.

Eric: points at self

Cindy: Yes, you conquered much of the world, However, now we will conquer the world. Out with the old, in with the new.

References

[1] Hermeneutics stack exchange. Why do interpreters add let us? By Scripture Page. Edited Dec 25, 2016. https://hermeneutics.stackexchange.com/questions/26337/genesis-126-why-do-interpreters-add-let-us

[2] Hermeneutics, Why.

[3] Craig, William Lane. In Quest of the Historical Adam: A Biblical and Scientific Exploration. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2021.

[4] Craig, Historical.

[5] Craig, Historical

[6] Xing, Lei, Anneline Pinson, Felipe Mora‐Bermúdez, and and Wieland B. Huttner. "The Role of Human‐specific Genes and Amino Acid Substitutions for Neocortex Expansion and Modern Human vs. Neanderthal Differences in Neocortical Neurogenesis." Neocortical Neurogenesis in Development and Evolution (2023): 137-156.

[7] Heide, Michael, Christiane Haffner, Ayako Murayama, Yoko Kurotaki, Haruka Shinohara, Hideyuki Okano, Erika Sasaki, and Wieland B. Huttner. "Human-specific ARHGAP11B increases size and folding of primate neocortex in the fetal marmoset." Science 369, no. 6503 (2020): 546-550.

[8] DeSilva, Jeremy M., James FA Traniello, Alexander G. Claxton, and Luke D. Fannin. "When and why did human brains decrease in size? A new change-point analysis and insights from brain evolution in ants." Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution (2021): 712.

[9] Meyer, Gundela, Jean Pierre Schaaps, Louis Moreau, and Andre M. Goffinet. "Embryonic and early fetal development of the human neocortex." Journal of Neuroscience 20, no. 5 (2000): 1858-1868.

[10] Kriegstein, Arnold, and Arturo Alvarez-Buylla. "The glial nature of embryonic and adult neural stem cells." Annual review of neuroscience 32 (2009): 149-184.

[11] Fernández, Virginia, Cristina Llinares‐Benadero, and Víctor Borrell. "Cerebral cortex expansion and folding: what have we learned?." The EMBO journal 35, no. 10 (2016): 1021-1044.

[12] Fiddes, Ian T., Gerrald A. Lodewijk, Meghan Mooring, Colleen M. Bosworth, Adam D. Ewing, Gary L. Mantalas, Adam M. Novak et al. "Human-specific NOTCH2NL genes affect notch signaling and cortical neurogenesis." Cell 173, no. 6 (2018): 1356-1369.

[13] Lodewijk, Gerrald A., Diana P. Fernandes, Iraklis Vretzakis, Jeanne E. Savage, and Frank MJ Jacobs. "Evolution of human brain size-associated NOTCH2NL genes proceeds toward reduced protein levels." Molecular biology and evolution 37, no. 9 (2020): 2531-2548.

[14] Singh, Sheel V., Nicky Staes, Elaine E. Guevara, Steven J. Schapiro, John J. Ely, William D. Hopkins, Chet C. Sherwood, and Brenda J. Bradley. "Evolution of ASPM coding variation in apes and associations with brain structure in chimpanzees." Genes, Brain and Behavior 18, no. 7 (2019): e12582.

[15] An, Ni A., Jie Zhang, Fan Mo, Xuke Luan, Lu Tian, Qing Sunny Shen, Xiangshang Li et al. "De novo genes with an lncRNA origin encode unique human brain developmental functionality." Nature Ecology & Evolution 7, no. 2 (2023): 264-278.

[16] Carotenuto, Francisco, Nikoloz Tsikaridze, Lorenzo Rook, D. Lordkipanidze, Laura Longo, Silvana Condemi, and Pasquale Raia. "Venturing out safely: The biogeography of Homo erectus dispersal out of Africa." Journal of Human Evolution 95 (2016): 1-12.

[17] Husson, Laurent, Tristan Salles, Anne-Elisabeth Lebatard, Swann Zerathe, Régis Braucher, Sofwan Noerwidi, Sonny Aribowo et al. "Javanese Homo erectus on the move in SE Asia circa 1.8 Ma." Scientific Reports 12, no. 1 (2022): 19012.

[18] Braun, David R., John WK Harris, Naomi E. Levin, Jack T. McCoy, Andy IR Herries, Marion K. Bamford, Laura C. Bishop, Brian G. Richmond, and Mzalendo Kibunjia. "Early hominin diet included diverse terrestrial and aquatic animals 1.95 Ma in East Turkana, Kenya." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 22 (2010): 10002-10007.

[19] Stewart, Kathlyn M. "Early hominid utilisation of fish resources and implications for seasonality and behaviour." Journal of Human Evolution 27, no. 1-3 (1994): 229-245.

220] Roach, Neil T., Kevin G. Hatala, Kelly R. Ostrofsky, Brian Villmoare, Jonathan S. Reeves, Andrew Du, David R. Braun, John WK Harris, Anna K. Behrensmeyer, and Brian G. Richmond. "Pleistocene footprints show intensive use of lake margin habitats by Homo erectus groups." Scientific Reports 6, no. 1 (2016): 26374.

[21] Roach, Homo erectus lake margin

[22] Roach, Homo erectus lake margin.

[23] Roach, Homo erectus lake margin.

[24] Hora, Martin, Herman Pontzer, Cara M. Wall-Scheffler, and Vladimír Sládek. "Dehydration and persistence hunting in Homo erectus." Journal of Human Evolution 138 (2020): 102682.

[25] Wilkins, Jayne, Benjamin J. Schoville, Kyle S. Brown, and Michael Chazan. "Evidence for early hafted hunting technology." Science 338, no. 6109 (2012): 942-946.

[26] Smithsonian Museum. What does it mean to be human? Accessed 10/11/2023. < https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-heidelbergensis>

The following references are being saved for chapter 7.

[1] Feinberg, C. The Image of God. Bibliotheca Sacra 129 (1972) 235-46.

[2] Vlach, M. 2007. What is the image of God? Theological Studies.Org. Accessed in 2007 at  http://www.theologicalstudies.citymax.com/page/page/3817812.htm

[3] B'tzelem Elohim, "In God's Image" SH'MINI ATZERET - SIMCHAT TORAH, HOLIDAYS Deuteronomy 33:1–34:12, Genesis 1:1–2:3 D'VAR TORAH BY:  SHARON L. WECHTER. Accessed on May 20, 2019 at < https://reformjudaism.org/btzelem-elohim-gods-image>

[4] Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed at Native American religions | History, Beliefs, Tribes, Culture, & Facts | Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/Native-American-religion

[5] Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed at African religions | History, Beliefs, Tribes, Culture, & Facts | Britannica    https://www.britannica.com/topic/African-religions

[6] Northern College, Traditional Indigenous Code of Ethics. Accessed at Traditional Indigenous Code of Ethics – Indigenous Website http://www.northernc.on.ca/indigenous/traditional-code-ethics/

[7] French, Christopher C. "Near-death experiences in cardiac arrest survivors." Progress in brain research 150 (2005): 351-367.

[8] Jeffrey Long, “Near-death Experience. Evidence for Their Reality,” Missouri Medicine 111, no. 5 (September–October 2014): 372–380,

[9] Daniel Cote, Jesus Is God and Savior: How Prophecy, Science, and History Affirm the Truth of Christianity (Watertown, CT: Multimedia Apologetics, 2022), 193

[10] Gary R. Habermas and J. P. Moreland, Beyond Death (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 1998), 155–172; Cote, Jesus Is God and Savior, 193–200.

[11] Bering, Jesse M. "The Cognitive Psychology of Belief in the Supernatural: Belief in a deity or an afterlife could be an evolutionarily advantageous by-product of people's ability to reason about the minds of others." American scientist 94, no. 2 (2006): 142-149.

[12] Guyot, Arnold. Creation, the Biblical Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science. (New York: Charles Scribner & Sons, 1884).

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San people (bushmen) in southern Africa. Credit: Isewell. Used here per CC BY-SA 2.5.